Skull Island: A Documentation of the Most Terrifying Place on Earth
by SomethingWittyIGuess
Summary: In the summer of 1889, a British Naval ship sails from India to Australia, however a tropical storm causes it to wash up on a lost island in the Indian Ocean. The crew dubs the landmass Skull Island and they take note of the odd and even deadly fauna and flora that call this place home. Since then, several expeditions were made to explore this land and what lived there.
1. Author's Note

**Author's Note: Now for most of my upcoming, unrelated stories, I will rarely, if ever, use author's notes. However, due to the nature of this story being different from many others, I feel like they are needed to give an explanation on how this project works.** _ **Skull Island: A Documentation of the Most Terrifying Place on Earth**_ **is an example of the science fiction subgenre of Speculative Evolution, or Speculative Biology. Speculative Evolution focuses on hypothetical scenarios in biological evolution and natural selection. This story is a more scientifically plausible reimagining of the fictional Skull Island, which is why this interpretation of the King Kong franchise will be very different from many others (similar to an AU fanfiction if you will). Each chapter will end with a similar Author's Note explaining the creature in the movies the organism presented in the chapter is based on. Eventually, I will post many similar, entirely original ideas (as well as this one) onto my Deviantart and Zetaboards accounts that also deal with the genre of Speculative Evolution. Thank you and I hope you enjoy the story.**


	2. Prologue

Publishing Date: 1971

Skull Island: A Documentation of the Most Terrifying Place on Earth

For years, humanity has always fantasized about the unknown and what could be found there. We wrote romantic adventure stories that took the hero to exotic, peculiar and often dangerous places; places filled with terrifying monsters that antagonized and battled the protagonist. Now most of these stories and the great figures and monsters could be chalked up to complete fantasy, however, during a British Empire-controlled expedition in the Indian Ocean in the summer of 1889, the crew of the ship found a place that seems to match the description of those myths of yore, Skull Island.

Skull Island is a medium-sized landmass in the Indian Ocean slightly larger than the Caribbean island of Hispanola. Its remote location has caused it to become a biodiversity hotspot, home to immigrants from India, Australia, Indonesia, Madagascar, and a small minority of organisms from the Horn of Africa. The island is most well-known for having several dangerous examples of predatory megafauna, such as the infamous Tyrant Quinkan (Ursosuchus ferox), the mud lurking Skullcrawler (Necrosuchus subterranus), the gargantuan Terror Eagle (Aquila giganteus), and the odd, yet intelligent Marsupial Dhole (Venatoroo necroinsulus). However, the two species that put Skull Island on the map are the Skull Island Men (Homo necroinsulus) and the Kong (Hylogiganteus rex).

Since the island's initial discovery in 1889, many more expeditions have been made, set to explore the many ecosystems of the island. The ecosystems include, the jungles in the southern part of the island, the mangrove swamps in the north and northeast, the semi-desert in the northwest, the grasslands in the west, the mountains in the center of the landmass (and the vast cave networks inside the mountains), the rivers and estuaries which feed into the imposingly-named Lake of Teeth, and the small, forested, Puerto Rico sized landmass near the southeastern coast of the main island called Tiger Island, named after the Holy Tiger (Panthera tigris necroinsulus), the dominant predator of this smaller landmass within a landmass. The largest concentrations of Skull Island Human communities is in the southern side of the island, where the rainforest meets the mountains, and on Tiger Island, however minor settlements are scattered throughout the island. The overall climate of Skull Island is fairly tropical, but snow sometimes collects on the highest of mountains.

What this report intends to do is document the individual endemic species of the island, share the religious beliefs of the natives, as well as document the island's role in human history since its discovery in 1889. Each section of this report will begin with one of the island's seven ecosystems, the organisms that live there, Native myths regarding these ecosystems, and how elements from these areas influenced modern history.

So without further ado, this is Skull Island, the most terrifying place on Earth.


	3. The Mangrove Swamps of Skull Island

The Mangrove Swamps of Skull Island

The Northernmost side of Skull Island is home to a network of mangrove swamps comparable to those found in Indonesia. It is the beginning of many of the island's estuaries, which feed into the island's main freshwater rivers, which feed into a large lake east of the southern rainforests.

This brackish wetland was the wreck site of the British trading vessel that first discovered the island in 1889. The crew consisted of about twenty individuals, either from Great Britain proper, Australians who were trading with the British, or native Indians who were mostly advisers to the Raj, however only half of the crew actually survived to tell the tale. They got aid from the natives who helped them build a signal fire which beckoned a nearby Australian trading vessel. The crew reported that many of their fallen men were mauled and/or devoured by wild beasts living on the island, many of which are found in the mangroves.

Out of all of the island's ecosystems, the mangrove swamp is the one most affected by Indian monsoons. Due to this flooding is quite common, so to cope with these violent yet life giving weather patterns, many organisms have evolved different survival strategies, hoping to reap the spoils of the floods after they have passed.

While the mangroves are a threatening place, see past that and you'll see something equally beautiful and fascinating.


	4. The Skullcrawler

Skullcrawler (Necrosuchus subterranus)

The mangrove swamps of Skull Island are home to a most unusual and frightening beast known as the skullcrawler. This two ton, five meter long behemoth of a carnivore may seem alien at first, but close genetic analysis shows that its closest living relative is the false gharial of Southeast Asia.

About 41 million years ago BCE, false gharials travelled across a land bridge connecting Indonesia and Skull Island. When the crocodilians began to settle in the mangrove wetlands, they found a food source in many of the now extinct giant gondwanatherian mammals that used to live there. The gharials developed an ingenious way of hunting these titans, burying themselves in the loose sand and ambushing their prey. As their hunting strategy became more used by other gharials, their prey became more cautious of loose sand, however, as the archosaurs became more and more suited to a somewhat subterranean lifestyle, their bodies began to change.

Their hind legs became reduced (not vestigial, just slightly smaller than their forelimbs), their skulls began to widen, and their forelimbs became powerful tools used for digging through the loose sand and silt of the brackish swamps. These forelimbs were also good for powerful coastal swimming, which gave the reptiles with their iconic black and white skeletal color palate, perfect for camouflaging with the colors of the shallow seas.

However, as their gondwanatherian prey became extinct after even-toed ungulates replaced them during the Miocene, the skullcrawlers had little trouble adapting to their new food source. One such mammal is the Sker Buffalo, a massive three ton bovid that is equally adapted to an amphibious mangrove lifestyle. These giants became the new preferred prey of the skullcrawlers. However, during the early Pleistocene, a newer, yet uncommon and difficult, food source arrived on the island, Homo erectus, the ancestors of Homo necroinsulus, the Skull Island Humans.

Skullcrawlers have since played roles in Skull Island myths as deadly, vicious, yet revered creatures that the Natives both fear and respect. When modern man first arrived on the island in 1889, these crocodilians plagued the shipwrecked crew when they were living off the fat of the mangroves, either trying to eat the crew or their beef supply. These giant archosaurs were dubbed Necrosuchus subterranus (Underground corpse crocodile) by modern science and have since become popular zoo exhibits, with the first successful captive breeding taking place at the Vienna Zoo in 1931.


	5. The Sker Buffalo

Sker Buffalo (Potomobos gigas)

The largest faunal resident of Skull Island's mangrove swamps, the Sker Buffalo is a three ton monster of a bovid. However, the most unusual aspect of this beast is not so much its size, but rather, the amphibious lifestyle it has. The Sker Buffalo is a descendant of the Wild Water Buffalo of Indonesia, however it seems to take the 'water' aspect of its ancestors' name quite literally as it is a semiaquatic, nocturnal herbivore, similar to the hippopotamus of Africa. But what separates this large ungulate apart from the hippo is the environment it is found in.

While the hippopotamus is adapted to freshwater rivers and lakes, the Sker Buffalo is adapted to living in both fresh and brackish waters. Sker herds can be found throughout the island's aquatic habitats, but the slightly saltier mangrove wetlands are where the largest herds are located. These creatures are very tolerant of salty water, an example of this adaptation is whenever a buffalo feeds on marine plants it sneezes to expel the salt from its nostrils, similar to the marine iguana of the Galapagos Islands.

The Sker Buffalo's diet consists of a variety of plant matter, from grass and fallen fruits to aquatic plants found in fresh, brackish, and coastal regions. These massive cattle often eat terrestrial plants at night due to risk of being sunburned (another similarity to the hippopotamus) as well as avoiding their only known predator, the primarily diurnal Skullcrawler (Necrosuchus subterranus).

This animal plays a role in the culture of the native humans of Skull Island, in which being able to kill one is considered a rite of passage due to their dangerous and unpredictable nature. As such, these bovines are associated with power and strength, but also wrath and stubbornness. Captive breeding of this animal has been fairly successful, with many calves being born in zoos all over the world. Due to this, Skers have become very popular zoo animals.

 **Author's Note: The Sker Buffalo is based on a minor creature from the 2017 film** _ **Kong Skull Island**_ **, where it is portrayed as having branching horns similar to deer antlers. While the Sker in my story does not have these, I still wanted to give it a unique set of characteristics (namely its aquatic and nocturnal nature).**


	6. The Brackish Octopus

Brackish Octopus (Octopus estuarius)

As a whole, octopodes are a strange group of invertebrates, even compared to their fellow mollusks. Their uncanny cleverness and their near amorphous appearance allows them to perform all sorts of odd and amusing feats, from using abandoned clam shells for protection, to being able to change their body shape to mimic other animals. However, one species endemic to Skull Island, while it may seem generic at first, can do something that most other cephalopods cannot, survive in fresh water.

The Brackish Octopus (Octopus estuarius) is one of two known cephalopods capable of living in non-saltwater environments, the other being the Brief Squid of the Chesapeake Bay. However, unlike the Brief Squid, this larger descendant of the Common Octopus goes one step further by being able to survive in not just brackish water, but also fresh water as well. These Skull Island mangrove residents demonstrate this ability when it comes to how they raise their young.

After a male and female octopus breed, the mother swims from their brackish mangrove swamp home upriver to find a safe place away from the many small carnivores in the region to lay her eggs, a very similar practice is done by eels in European rivers. These trips upriver can sometimes take them to purely freshwater areas. Once she finds a suitable location, she lays her eggs and does something else unorthodox for octopodes; she looks after her young.

Once her offspring can fend for themselves, she leaves them, returning to the mangroves, with many of her offspring following suit. Though the rivers and estuaries of the island have predators of their own, the octopodes are able to defend themselves by squirting ink to escape from the many large predatory fish. However, this strategy can sometimes backfire because land-dwelling, fishing predators, including the island Natives, will often times follow the trails of ink. After this long and perilous journey, the cephalopods' reward is finding sanctuary in the mangroves, as the small carnivores there are now unable to feed on them. Once they reach sexual maturity, the cycle begins anew.

As stated above, these mollusks are an important food source for many of the island's northern tribes. As a result, Brackish Octopodes are seen as symbols of humbleness and resourcefulness. These animals pose no threat to humans, but they will try to fight back if caught. Brackish Octopodes are a rare sight in captivity, but a few captive specimens do exist.


	7. Gull Crow and Opiate Pufferfish

Gull Crow (Corvus larius)

Corvids are among the most adaptable and intelligent of all birds, living on nearly every continent and island outside of Antarctica, and these feats of adaptability and cleverness are no more represented by members of the genus Corvus, crows and ravens. These magnificent birds are characterized by their usually glossy, black, iridescent feathers that shimmer in the sunlight as their owners are foraging for anything that can fit in their bills, animal and plant alike. Multiple corvids, mostly ones from Indonesia and Australia, make their homes on Skull Island, but there's one endemic species of crow that lives an interesting lifestyle, the Gull Crow (Corvus larius).

Gull Crows often live and feed near water, hence their name, and are found throughout the coastlines of Skull Island, but the populations in the northern mangroves are by far the most interesting. Descended from an Indian species of crow, these birds have not changed all that much morphology-wise from their ancestors, excluding the longer beak used to catch fish and their relatively larger size. Behavior-wise, the crows of the mangrove wetlands do something very unique from other birds, they get intoxicated.

A small species of pufferfish, the Opiate Puffer (see more below) has a liver that is filled with a deadly cocktail of hallucinogenic toxins. Similar to dolphins, the crows take advantage of this and get high off of the toxin. This causes the birds to start behaving oddly, from lashing out at predators, to wobbling around on the beach aimlessly when they walk. However, if too much is ingested, the crows can surely die.

Now even though gulls often migrate to Skull Island's coast, these crows still fill a similar niche to them, mainly when they're absent. These corvids, like others of their genus, are omnivores which will feed on anything they can find, from fruits and nuts in the trees, to fish and other small aquatic prey, to the washed up carcasses of marine animals. However, despite being omnivores, seafood seems to be a favorite of this species' diet, including young Brackish Octopus.

In Skull Island folklore, the Gull Crow is seen as a smart, yet reckless figure because of their drug habits. These birds are easy to keep in captivity and some people even keep them as pets. In fact, many crows raised in captivity often live longer than wild individuals because of the lack of exposure to hallucinogenic pufferfish.

Opiate Puffer (Estuarothron hallucinogenus)

Pufferfish, also known as blowfish and sugar toads, are some of the ocean's most feared residents, not so much for any kind of large size, sharp teeth, or phenomenal strength, as they really don't have any of those traits, but rather for the lethal toxins that coarse through their skin and internal organs. In fact, humans have found many practical uses for this fish, from being used as a popular food source in Japan, known as fugu, to their toxic body parts being used by Haitian Vodou priests as an ingredient to create "zombies". Now not all pufferfish are restricted to saltwater, some estuary-living species exist, and one species that is native to Skull Island's mangrove swamps is the Opiate Puffer (Estuarothron hallucinogenus).

The Opiate Puffer is one of the smallest species of pufferfish in the world, but it is also one of the deadliest. This fish's bright, yellow and black colored body is a warning to many hungry predators to stay away, however to one mangrove hunter these colors are seen as an invitation rather than a warning. This predator in question is the Gull Crow (see above) which actively seeks out these fish to experience the drug-like effects of ingesting a small amount of toxin.

The role of the fish in Skull Island mythology is that of a meek yet brave hero that stands up to and defeats characters (a role the Gull Crow is often cast in). Like the Brackish Octopus, captive specimens are rare because of their toxicity however the Vienna Zoo has one of the most successful Opiate Puffer breeding programs in the world.

 **Author's Note: The relationship between the Opiate Puffer and the Gull Crow are based on the hallucinogenic pufferfish and Psychovultures (a black, aggressive, bat-like monster) respectively from the 2017 film** _ **Kong Skull Island.**_


	8. The Clameater Bear

Clameater Bear ( _Melursus bivalvenator)_

Since the dawn of humanity over one million years ago, there has been no group of predators as feared and revered as much as bears. With their great strength, powerful jaws, and the ability to survive almost anywhere, the diversity among bears, both living and extinct, may be why we as a species are, despite our fears of their imposing might, surprisingly enthralled by them. Skull Island has one native species of bear and it may be one of the strangest on the planet, the Clameater Bear ( _Melursus bivalvenator_ ).

Clameater Bears are the smallest species of bear in the world, beating the previous record-holder the Malayan Sun Bear ( _Helarctos malayanus_ ). These small bears are 120 cm long and they can weigh up to 27 kilograms. However, their evolutionary origin lies not with sun bears, but with the Sloth Bear ( _Melursus ursinus_ ) of India.

Despite their genetic similarities to the Sloth Bear, the Clameater Bear differs from its Indian ancestor through one striking difference; its diet. Unlike its termite-guzzling ancestor, Clameaters, true to their name, like to dig through the loose, silty mud of Skull Island's mangrove swamps in search of shellfish. While these bears prefer bivalves (clams, mussels, and oysters), they have also been observed slurping up crustaceans (namely barnacles and crabs), fish, aquatic worms, and even the endemic Mire Octopus, the powerful crushing molars making short work of any hard-shelled invertebrate.

Another non-anatomical difference between Sloth Bears and Clameater Bears is the close-knit social behavior of the latter. These black-furred beasts are the only bears to live in organized groups, usually consisting of one or two dominant males, a harem of females, and any cubs that have not reached sexual maturity. The reason why these bears form these close social bonds is so that, while some of the bears are feeding, the others (usually the lighter-bodied females and children) climb into the trees to watch for predators (namely Skullcrawlers) lurking in the mud. When the sentries' "shifts" are over, they forage for themselves while another bear takes over for them.

Clameater Bears are a common sight in the mangroves and, as such, are not threatened by any known human activity. Surprisingly (quite unlike their aggressive Sloth Bear ancestors), these bears are usually docile, however there have been occasional recorded attacks from both the native and non-native humans. Many scientists believe that, much like the Gull Crows, these usually gentle mammals become hostile after accidentally ingesting Opiate Pufferfish.

 **Author's Note: The Clameater Bear is loosely based on** _ **Aciedactylus**_ **, a shellfish eating theropod dinosaur featured in** _ **The World of Kong: A Natural History of Skull Island**_ **.**


	9. Skull Island's Grasslands

The Western Grasslands of Skull Island

Since the beginning of the Miocene epoch, grasses have become the planet's dominant plants, appearing in just about every terrestrial ecosystem. In fact, many ecosystems, from the American Great Plains to the savannahs of East Africa, are almost entirely made up of grasses, some of which have grown to taller than average heights. Skull Island too has grasslands on its western side. This vast sea of vegetation is the second largest of Skull Island's unique ecosystems, with the mountain range in the center being the largest.

The island's grasslands seemed to have originated at the same time and in a similar fashion to grasslands elsewhere in the world; during the Miocene. For a while, early hyracotherian rhinoceroses from India, large birds incapable of flight from Australia, and giant gondwanatheres were the dominant herbivores of this massive plain. However, many of them were sadly pushed to extinction by new even-toed ungulate arrivals from South and Southeast Asia, namely deer and cattle, which are highly adapted to a diet of grass. Despite this, some of these early herbivores still live on the plains to this day, namely because they filled different niches from the invaders.

Unlike the grasslands' modern herbivores, which are, for the most part, fairly similar to grassland vegetarians elsewhere, the local predators are a different matter. Unlike the dogs and cats which stalk the grasslands of Africa, North America, and Eurasia, flesh-eating marsupials dominate the savannahs of Skull Island, the two most noteworthy examples being the Marsupial Jackal (Thylacinus gigas), a large species of thylacine, and the oddity known as the Marsupial Dhole (Venatoroo necroinsulus), a highly intelligent and social species of carnivorous macropod that is closely related to kangaroos.

The flora and fauna of Skull Island's grasslands were first documented in depth during a well-known American 1933 expedition which would later lead to the King Kong Incident of 1933. During the expedition, the crew, despite their preparations, was menaced by the plains' macropredatory marsupials, as well as by angry herbivores such as the giant deer and the last of the hyracotherian rhinos. Afterwards, they would arrive at the foot of the western side of the mountains where they would come face to face with an abnormally large Kong.


	10. The Marsupial Dhole

Marsupial Dhole (Venatoroo necroinsulus)

The popular image of a kangaroo is that of a man-sized, large-footed, herbivorous marsupial bounding across Australia's outback. However, kangaroos and other macropods, come in many distinct shapes and behaviors, from the extant, small fruit eaters of Papua New Guinea, to the extinct, slow-moving giants of the Pleistocene. But by far the strangest (and most terrifying) of all macropods makes its home on western Skull Island, the flesh-eating Marsupial Dhole (Venatoroo necroinsulus).

When the Marsupial Dhole was first discovered by modern science, it was quite a puzzle finding the origin of what is essentially a carnivorous, intelligent, horse-sized kangaroo that hunts in packs, sprinting around and corralling their prey on all sides so there's no way of escape, until two or three individuals use their slicing teeth and powerful, dexterous claws to kill the victim. This remained a mystery until a series of fossils uncovered in 1938 showed a treasure trove of small, omnivorous basal kangaroos, dating back to the early Miocene. It seems that due to the lack of many fully terrestrial apex predators, sans a few varanids and larger relatives of the Chinese Crocodile Lizard, many new arrivals from Australia were able to become the new top predators of the island, including mekosuchine crocodiles and the aforementioned omnivorous kangaroos. The marsupials in particular probably started out small before becoming larger, their running, almost birdlike gait evolving independently from other similar (and more herbivorous) Australian kangaroos. By the Late Pliocene, the carnivorous macropods took over the island's grasslands as the apex predator, slowly becoming smarter and more social, hence their similarities to dholes and other wild dogs.

As mentioned before, marsupial dholes are remarkably intelligent, being on par with dogs. Their hunting strategy consists of a pack of these beasts hiding in the tall grass while stalking a victim, usually a Skull Island False Elk or a juvenile Brontobeast. Each of the kangaroos splits up and finds a different hiding place, waiting to surround their prey as to not let it escape. Once corralled, two or three of the kangaroos run up to the victim's hindquarters, sinking their teeth and claws into the beast so that it begins to lose blood. One their prey is weakened, another kangaroo rushes to its neck, delivering the final blow with its jaws. These marsupials have a doglike social hierarchy as well, with a pack of these beasts consisting of a breeding pair and their joeys.

Due to their strange appearance and even stranger behavior, Marsupial Dholes have become icons of Skull Island, being popular zoo exhibits. In fact, these odd creatures can actually be tamed with enough time and patience and as a result, they have become popular exotic pets (although their dangerous natures means that they are not recommended ones), which was the cause of their endangerment in the early 20th Century. Joeys were often taken from their slaughtered parents by hired poachers to be sold to wealthy aristocrats during the 1940s and 50s, until the United Nations banned the sale of pet Marsupial Dholes in 1960.

 **Author's Note: The Marsupial Dhole is loosely based on the** _ **Venatosaurus**_ **from the 2005 remake of** _ **King Kong**_ **. The creature in the film is a large dromaeosaur (raptor) like dinosaur that hunts in packs.**


	11. The Brontobeast

Brontobeast (Goliatherium longus)

The popular image of a rhinoceros is that of a bulky, thick-skinned, squat beast with one or two horns on the end of its snout, grazing peacefully before charging violently at an either very brave or very foolish predator. But, as with many of Earth's giants, rhinos came from much smaller and humbler beginnings, being hornless, small forest-dwelling creatures that were not too different from the ancestors of their close cousins, the horses. However, as the Eocene came to a close and the giant herbivorous brontotheres and dinoceratans vanished, rhinos would end up taking their role as Earth's designated megaherbivores. One such group of rhinos, the hyracotheres, produced not only the largest rhino of all time, but also the largest ever land mammal, _Paraceratherium_.

This behemoth of a beast was 15 to 20 tonnes in weight, 7.4 metres long and 4.8 metres tall. These giants lived in India and the Middle East from the beginning to the end of the Oligocene, dying out when the Proboscidea order (elephants, mammoths, etc) began to diversify. However, land bridges from India to Skull Island were a path to relative safety for these magnificent beasts, allowing them to diversify into many different forms suited for grassland lifestyle. However, most of these hyracotheres finally died out in the Pleistocene due to competition with deer, cattle, and other artiodactyls. However, there is one species still around today, the Brontobeast (Goliatherium longus).

The Brontobeast, while smaller that its 20 tonne ancestors (being only about the size of a male Bornean Elephant), is Skull Island's largest endemic animal sans migratory whales. This beast's anatomy and behavior has changed very little from its ancestors as well, using its long, pillar-like legs and long neck to feed on high vegetation (in a similar fashion to elephants and giraffes). This relatively conservative body plan may have been the reason why it didn't fall victim to competition with the Ice Age artiodactyls.

Brontobeasts live in small-sized herds led by a matriarch (males leave the herd once they reach sexual maturity). Females are extremely protective of their young and males (being full of testosterone) become very aggressive during breeding season, making them one of Skull Island's most dangerous residents. One unfortunate run-in with these creatures happened during an American 1933 expedition, where an aggressive male killed two of the crewmembers.

Brontobeasts are revered by the Skull Island Natives (in a similar way to Kongs) for their strength and dedication to their young. Killing one is considered taboo unless absolutely necessary. However, out of all of the island's fauna, these ancient beasts are one of the most threatened due to overhunting during the Japanese occupation of Skull Island during World War II. Zoos all over the world are engaging in breeding programs, many of them being highly successful.

 **Author's Note: The Brontobeast is based on the** _ **"Brontosaurus"**_ **sauropods from the 2005 remake of** _ **King Kong**_ **, mostly in their bulky appearance and somewhat social behavior.**


	12. The Colossal Pangolin

Colossal Pangolin (Manis pilosomimus)

Pangolins are among some of the strangest mammals to ever exist, easily recognizable by their toothless mouths, scaly pelt, and hefty claws which, when used alongside their long tongues, are used to raid the dwellings of ants and termites. Pangolins are found throughout most of Africa and Southern Asia, where, despite many species having unique evolutionary adaptations, they all have the same traits that make these odd mammals noticeable. Skull Island's endemic resident, the Colossal Pangolin (Manis pilosomimus), is no different, but it, like many individual pangolin species, has its own adaptations that make this beast unique in its own right.

For starters, the Colossal Pangolin, true to its nomenclature, is a massive creature, with an average weight of 78 kilograms and an average length of 1.9 meters making it the largest pangolin in the world. Another interesting fact about this massive insectivore is hinted at in its species name, which alludes to its similarities with a famous, giant species of South American mammal, the giant anteater. Like the aforementioned anteater, the Colossal Pangolin feeds on the mound-building termites native to the island's grasslands, using their powerful claws to make short work of the strong structures. Also, like the anteater, the pangolin uses its claws to defend itself, making it a surprisingly dangerous animal (many carcasses of the island's killer marsupials were found with claw wounds).

But by far the strangest trait the Colossal Pangolin possesses is the mane of scaly fur found only on the backs of males. The males use this "mane" to attract females during the breeding season, the males with the most impressive rows of hair often get the females. However, using their powerful claws as weapons, males more often than not often get into fights with one another, their brains drenched in testosterone.

Since the 1930s, the Colossal Pangolin has become a popular attraction in zoos, primarily due to its easy care needs. However, less experienced keepers have often been injured and even killed by captive specimens. Conservation for these creatures, like all species of pangolin, is very important due to many of these beasts being hunted for food when the Japanese Empire occupied Skull Island during World War II.

 **Author's Note: The Colossal Pangolin (Manis pilosomimus) is a reimagining of the Stegosaurus seen in the original 1933** _ **King Kong**_ **, the male's dorsal mane being inspired by a stegosaur's back plates.**


	13. The Plains Mihirung

Plains Mihirung ( _Neodromornis adansophagus_ )

Mihirungs, Demon ducks, Thunder birds; the gargantuan flightless birds that make up the family Dromornithidae, whatever name one may attach to them, are universally perceived as quite formidable beasts. Living in Australia for over 25 million years until their demise at the hands of Ice Age humans, these birds, for the longest time, were as mysterious as they are magnificent. Many paleontologists speculated about the ecology of these animals, debating whether or not they were carnivores or herbivores and whether or not they were struthioniformes (ratites) or anserimorphs (ducks, geese, screamers, and the extinct _Gastornis_ ). However, with the discovery of Skull Island, all of these questions have been answered with after the last-living member of this primarily extinct family was found living in its grasslands, the Plains Mihirung ( _Neodromornis adansophagus_ ).

Observation of the Plains Mihirung has been a great help in shedding light on Dromornithid behavior and taxonomy. This grey-feathered animal is the largest living bird, as tall as a standing Grizzly Bear and twice as heavy as an ostrich. It uses its hoof-like claws and long legs to be able to swiftly traverse the grasslands, running up to speeds of 35 mph. It uses its powerful beak to crush the tough shells of many fruits native to Skull Island, the fruits of the island's nine native species baobab tree are especially prized (hence its species name). Also, close genetic analysis of this monstrous bird confirms that it is a closer relative to ducks and geese than to ratites.

Despite being staunch vegetarians, Plains Mihirungs are extremely aggressive, using their powerful beak and hoof-like talons to injure and even kill any potential predators that may wander too close to their nests (mothers with eggs/chicks are extremely dangerous). During breeding season, a female Mihirung lays up to four eggs a year, however usually only three survive primarily due to predation. Males and females also breed for life, raising a new brood each and every year.

During the Japanese occupation of Skull Island in the 1940s, Plains Mihirungs were relentlessly hunted for their meat and eggs. This overhunting has caused them, as well as most of Skull Island's grassland-dwelling megafauna, to become endangered today, which is why zoos from all over the world have been keen on breeding these birds. So far, as of 1971, these breeding programs have been quite successful, with over ten captive hatchings taking place worldwide.

 **Author's Note: The Plains Mihirung is loosely based on the Brutornis, a flightless, carnivorous bird that appears in the book** _ **The World of Kong: A Natural History of Skull Island**_ **, and was seen in a deleted scene for the 2005 remake of** _ **King Kong**_ **.**


	14. The Marsupial Jackal

Marsupial Jackal ( _Thylacinus gigas)_

The thylacine ( _Thylacinus cynocephalus_ ) is the largest extant marsupial predator in Australia. Despite its formerly miniscule range (being only found on the island of Tasmania for most of recent history), conservation efforts ensured a prosperous future for mainland Australian thylacines. These carnivorous mammals grow to the size of a large dog, and, despite carrying the boastful title of 'largest mammalian predator of Australia', pose little to no threat to humans. However, living in the humid grasslands of Skull Islands is a much larger (and by extension more threatening) relative of these marsupials, the Marsupial Jackal ( _Thylacinus gigas_ ).

The thylacine lineage is a surprisingly old one, with members of the genus _Thylacinus_ dating back to the late Oligocene. As to be expected after viewing their rich fossil history, it makes sense for thylacines to have reached Skull Island when Miocene land bridges connected the landmass with mainland Australia, allowing the doglike, pouched flesh-eaters to travel there. The thylacines on the island have grown much bigger than their Australian ancestors (probably to exploit the large bounty of massive herbivores) resulting in today's Marsupial Jackal.

The Marsupial Jackal is an imposing beast, with the largest reaching heights comparable to ostriches, their muscular limbs and powerful, gaping jaws adding to their terrifying and majestic appearance. This animal has become an ambush killer, using its striped pelt to blend in with the grass before pouncing on its victim (humans, both the native and non-native species, are not uncommon prey). A bone-crushing bite is delivered as the final blow to what would become the marsupial's next meal.

Unlike their contemporaries, the killer kangaroos known as the Marsupial Dholes, Marsupial Jackals are not social hunters (true to their placental namesake being a solitary creature). However, as with many species of eagle, male and female thylacines mate for life, with some couples producing multiple generations. Usually the mother Marsupial Jackal raises one or two joeys at a time, providing milk and a pouch for shelter until the joeys reach six months of age. The young thylacines then begin to practice hunting by feeding on smaller creatures such as lizards, gondwanatheres, and birds before they move on to hunting larger beasts when they reach adolescence.

 **Author's Note:** The Marsupial Jackal is loosely based on the Lycaesaurus (a late-surviving gorgonopsid) of the book _The World of Kong_ , the companion guide to the 2005 remake of _King Kong_.


	15. The Hordeleaper

Hordeleaper ( _Papiotarsus vulgaris_ )

Despite Skull Island's most famous endemic residents being simian primates (the Kong and the Skull Island humans respectively), the island, for the most part, is mostly deprived of primates despite its close proximity to landmasses that are rich in monkeys and/or apes. Most of the island's primates are of some sort of prosimian origin, with the endemic Robber Lemurs finding many nook and cranny niches throughout the island's rainforests, mangroves, and grasslands. However, the strangest primate of all native to the island is neither a lemur nor an ape, rather it is a peculiar creature known in the Native tongue as the Hordeleaper ( _Papiotarsus vulgaris_ ).

The Hordeleaper bears an uncanny resemblance the baboons of Africa's savannahs, with its dexterous hands, social behavior, and lanky limbs used for climbing and running. However, after one takes a closer look at this anomaly, one can see traits not seen in any monkey, namely the padded suctions at the end of their fingers, large eyes used to see in the dark, mostly carnivorous diet (sans a few fruits and leaves from their baobab homes), and superb jumping capabilities, and one realizes their true origin; the humble tarsier.

Tarsiers have inhabited southeastern Asia since the middle Eocene, which makes sense why the ancestors of the Hordeleapers were some of the island's first major residents since its official formation. These small primates are well known for their powerful legs, hence their name, which allow them to jump to great heights and lengths, their massive eyes (which weigh more than their brains), their fully carnivorous diet, their flexible necks (which allow their heads to swivel 180 degrees), and their padded fingers used to grab tree branches with ease. Many of these traits can also be found in hordeleapers, albeit some like the head swiveling and all meat diets of their ancestors have been reduced.

When it comes to how these ancestral traits translate to the cursorial hordeleapers, they translate surprisingly well. Hordeleapers, unlike baboons, are nocturnal, giving them great uses for their eyes and necks (they can swivel their necks up to 90 degrees). They are still fantastic jumpers, however they leap from tree to tree more similarly to monkeys rather than other tarsiers. Their diets, although more generalistic than their ancestors, still primarily consist of small animals (namely insects, lizards, bird eggs, gondwanatheres, and even juvenile Skull Island False Elk which they hunt for in groups).

Hordeleapers, true to their name, live in large family groups consisting of a dominant male, several lesser males (usually his older children), and a harem of females with whom the dominant male mates with. An interesting behavior these plains-dwelling tarsiers possess that is not usually found in baboons is the art of cooperative hunting, which can cause these normally harmless primates to become surprisingly deadly. Despite their ferocious cooperative hunting strategies, they do not see humans as prey, however, many attacks (and to a lesser extent injuries and deaths) have occurred when humans accidentally stumbled upon a troop's baobab home, which the cursorial prosimians defend with upmost ferocity, out of fear that their young will be endangered.

 **Author's Note:** The Hordeleapers are loosely derived from the Death Jackals (pack hunting, semi-bipedal doglike reptiles) featured in _Skull Island: The Birth of Kong_ , a supplementary comic series to the 2017 film _Kong Skull Island_.


	16. The Skull Island False Elk

Skull Island False Elk ( _Dama necroinsulus_ )

When the casual visitor to Skull Island first imagines the place, he or she would usually imagine witnessing the island's numerous bizarre, charismatic, and often lethal fauna, paying little to no heed to some that are seemingly more mundane. One such beast that many a sensationalist island tour guide unfortunately glosses over is the Skull Island False Elk ( _Dama necroinsulus_ ), which is a colossal (for cervid standards at least) descendant of the humble Fallow Deer ( _Dama dama_ ) of mainland Asia. But despite this animal's apparent "ordinariness", as with all organisms, one must look closer to find this deer's unique and intriguing traits.

When it comes to studying this massive deer, a key point of direction would be its evolutionary history. Like several animals native to modern day Skull Island, the Indian ancestors of the Skull Island False Elk stumbled upon an alien world once land bridges connecting the two landmasses appeared and disappeared throughout the Pleistocene. These cervids, along with many other even-hoofed immigrants, then became an invasive species (ironically mimicking the many artificially introduced Fallow Deer populations found across Argentina and the British Isles), driving multiple species of ancient rhinoceroses, mihirungs, and megafaunal gondwanatheres that once feasted on the islands bounty of grasses to extinction, their food source now being regularly cut by the descendants of these invaders. With much of their competition either deceased or simply undergoing a diet change, these once medium-sized deer grew much larger, reaching similar size proportions to the American Elk ( _Cervus canadensis_ ), hence the beast's common English name the Skull Island False Elk.

Despite the Skull Island False Elk's nomenclature, the similarities between the two deer only relate to size. Unlike their American namesake, this deer retains its brownish-tan fur with small, white spots used to differentiate members of the herd. The males' antlers also do not branch out as much as a real elk, instead keeping its ancestors' velvety, footprint-shaped head protrusions, which are lost and regrown annually. However, one arguable "half-truth" similarity between the two beasts could be that both males produce a loud sound during the breeding season, with the American Elk producing its signature "bugle" and the False Elk producing a louder version of its ancestor's low, grumbling bellow.

 **Author's Note:** the Skull Island False Elk is based on a fictional species of hadrosaur from the 2005 remake of _King Kong_ known as _Ligocristus_. Much like many hadrosaurs, deer often produce odd sounds and live in massive herds.


	17. The Pinnatono

Pinnatono ( _Dracodromaius magnoliphagus_ )

At first glance the Pinnatono ( _Dracodromaius magnoliphagus_ ) is nothing special, just a familiar-looking bird that is a common sight when exploring the grasslands of Skull Island. But looks can be deceiving, and to anyone who has seen this animal in person (such as the Natives) or has studied it thoroughly, this is one of the island's most bizarre avian residents. This seemingly mundane fowl holds an unpleasant secret; its ability to fend off foes by regurgitating.

Normally when faced with a would-be predator (such as a Marsupial Jackal or a lone Marsupial Dhole), this larger relative of Australia's Emu ( _Dromaius novaehollandiae_ ) would either run away or use its powerful legs and sharp talons to ward off its attacker. But if cornered, this ill-tempered ratite has another, less elegant, defense tactic. This bird feasts on many species of bush found across the plains, but one species in particular is the Pinnatono's favorite; the Firecracker Berry ( _Pyromagnolia necroinsulus_ ). Descended from relatives of the Tasmanian Mountain Pepper ( _Tasmannia lanceolate_ ), this fruit is known for its extremely spicy flesh and juice that, if in contact with an eye or another sensitive body part, can cause a burning sensation. The Pinnatono is one of only a handful of animals that actively pursues this bush, its fruits and leaves making up a quarter of the beast's diet. When running or kicking is not an option, the bird regurgitates its spicy stomach contents (projectile vomiting is rare, but still apparent in many birds) at its adversary, aiming mainly for the eyes to cause massive amounts of irritation. In fact, the name Pinnatono is a corruption of the animal's native name, which roughly translates to "flame-belcher".

The evolutionary origin of the Pinnatono is another surprising characteristic it has. Despite being one of Australia's most familiar native residents, emus are, in fact, a somewhat ancient species, with the first members of the genus _Dromaius_ appearing during the early Miocene epoch. Like many Skull Island beasts of Australian origins, they came to the Haiti-sized landmass via a small land bridge connected to Australia. The ancestors of the Pinnatono grew in size and evolved a stomach used to tolerate some of the less-than-favorable flora that was avoided by most mammals.

 **Author's Note:** The Pinnatono is roughly the same as the similarly named bird featured in _The World of Kong, A Natural History of Skull Island_ , with the only notable difference being its scientific name.


	18. Rivers and the Lake of Teeth

Freshwater Ecosystems: Rivers and the Lake of Teeth

If one could compare Skull Island to the human form, water could be seen as a metaphorical bloodstream. The island is covered by many large rivers, which then branch into many smaller waterways and swamps that cut through denser areas of land. Some of the widest rivers cut through the central mountain range, forming massive chasms and caves whose unique fauna and flora are nearly isolated from the outside world. Nearly all of these "blood vessels" flow to and from the island's heart, the infamous Lake of Teeth, a gargantuan body of water home to many of the island's deadliest aquatic hunters.

Many of the largest rivers on the island are estuaries that either feed in from the northern mangrove swamps or the rocky shores of the south. As a result, many primarily saltwater and/or brackish water creatures (such as skullcrawlers and brackish octopi) often make their way along these estuaries, eventually coming into contact with fresher water. In fact, many of these animals utilize this migratory behavior (the aforementioned octopus being a staple example) as part of their yearly lifestyle, being able to exploit both types of aquatic ecosystems.

With this being said though, the freshwater ecosystems of Skull Island have a wide variety of odd animals found nowhere else in the world. A colorful cast of fish, arthropods, mollusks, worms, amphibians, and other beasts associated with aquatic habitats can be found in the island's rivers, swamps, creeks, and lakes. These waterways also support a large variety of specialized aquatic reptiles, birds and mammals who would not be able to survive without their watery homes.


	19. Mutualism in the River

Pouched River Giant ( _Hydroprotodon ferox_ )

From the late Oligocene to the end of the Pleistocene, Australia was home to a family of marsupials known as the Diprotodontidae, which consisted of several species of large, herbivorous mammals closely related to modern day wombats and koalas. These "mega-wombats" were Australia's equivalent to the rhinos, of Africa and Asia, using their well-equipped teeth to feed on all kinds of vegetation growing in Australia's scrublands. This dynasty of herbivores ended with the largest of their kind, _Diprotodon opatum_ , being driven to extinction by the arrival of humans in Australia during the last ice age. Though these magnificent marsupials can no longer be found in Australia, a few members of this family do survive today on Skull Island, the most bizarre of them all being the Pouched River Giant ( _Hydroprotodon ferox_ ).

This behemoth of a marsupial can grow as up to 5.2 meters long and can weigh as much as a ton (similar to the hippopotamus of Africa). Also, much like hippos, these marsupials are amphibious, using their blubber to keep them buoyant as they search for food and territory in the rivers and lakes of Skull Island. In fact, an important adaptation that the mother River Giant has is a protective fold of skin and fat that can protect the developing joey within the pouch from water, similar to the Neotropical Water Opossum. This beast is a nondiscriminatory herbivore, feeding on grass, aquatic plants, bushes, fallen fruits, and even tree bark which they can make short work of with their powerful teeth.

The Pouched River Giant is a territorial and aggressive animal, charging at anything that comes into its territory. Although, they do get along with many smaller animals, usually birds that clean the marsupial of parasites. These creatures live in small, matriarchal herds of up to four breeding females and their joeys, males, on the other hand, usually live alone but are tolerated by females even when it is not breeding season.

Bigfin Wasteworker ( _Faecesicthys necroinsulus_ )

Mudskippers are often cited as anomalies among fish, and it's not hard to see why. Their ability to survive on land (and even climb trees) for long periods of time harken back to the days of the Devonian period, when the first tetrapods began crawling out of the ocean with their modified pectoral fins. But on Skull Island, there is one mudskipper that is stranger than all of the rest, the Bigfin Wasteworker ( _Faecesicthys necroinsulus_ ).

At first glance, this fish seems to share much of the same traits its relatives from other parts of Tropical Asia have (breathing through their skin, powerful pectoral fins used for land-based locomotion, digging burrows, etc), but the one thing that separates this odd fish from other mudskippers is the main staple of its diet; animal feces. The Bigfin Wasteworker gets its name from the relationship it has with large, amphibious megafauna (most commonly the Pouched River Giant), in which it feeds on the waste of the animals it lives around. As a result, this mudskipper is much more omnivorous than most others, being able to feed on both plants and animal (usually in predigested form). This behavior mirrors that of tilapia, a group of fish from the freshwater regions of Africa which often times feed on the feces of hippopotamuses and other herbivores.

 **Author's Note:** The mutualistic relationship between the Pouched Water Giant and the Bigfin Wasteworker are based on the relationship between the Malamagnus (a dinocephalian synapsid) and the Dirt Turtle from _The World of Kong, A Natural History of Skull Island_.


	20. The Pseudoconda

Pseudoconda ( _Megacandoia pseudoconda_ )

A common misconception regarding the difference between pythons and boas is that pythons are from the Old World and that boas are supposedly endemic to the New World. This is partially untrue (all pythons are native to the Old World) because there are many species of boa found in central Africa, Madagascar, Melanesia, and (the focus of this entry) Skull Island. Despite Skull Island being one of the world's leading examples of a biodiversity hotspot, snakes are, unfortunately, very poor in supply. Most snakes found on the main island (about a ¾ ratio) are boas with the rest usually being Old World colubrids or the occasional python. The only venomous snakes found in the region are found on Tiger Island (sans one example). However, despite the lack of variety of Skull Island serpents, there is one very charismatic example that is well-known across the world; the aptly named Pseudoconda ( _Megacandoia pseudoconda_ ).

The Pseudoconda is a large boa that rivals the Neotropical Green Anaconda ( _Eunectes murinus_ ) in its shape, size, length, and behavior patterns (hence its name). Like its American counterpart, it is a superb swimmer, making a home out of Skull Island's menagerie of rivers, streams, springs, and lakes. Their amphibious locomotion also helps them with hunting as, much like a crocodile, it watches its prey, usually consisting of fish, amphibians, birds, and medium to large mammals and reptiles, waiting for it to approach the riverbank to drink. Then, the reptilian beast clamps its powerful, double-hinged jaws around its victim's throat, constricting it and cutting off air and circulation before swallowing it whole.

Like other boas, the Pseudoconda is ovoviviparous, in which they give birth to "live young". During mating, the male uses its vestigial leg spurs (a trait commonly found in many large constrictors) to grab hold of the female. A total of 20-30 offspring are born although, due to the lack of parental care, many fall prey to other animals.

This leviathan of a serpent has become one of Skull Island's most recognizable animals, probably due to it being a very prominent case of convergent evolution. It is very easy to keep in captivity (like many giant constrictors) and is sometimes sold as a pet (although due to their aquatic nature and large size it is not encouraged).

 **Author's Note** : The Pseudoconda is loosely based on the serpentine plesiosaur-like monster (labeled as an "Elasmosaurus") in the original 1933 King Kong movie.


	21. The Iguanatee

Iguanatee ( _Sirenosaurus necroinsulus_ )

Today, lizards come in all matter of shapes and sizes. From the smallest geckos and chameleons, to the biggest iguanas and varanids, these scaly creatures have inhabited this planet since the middle Jurassic period, evolving into a myriad of strange and charismatic forms. Despite its overall low diversity of one group of these squamates (snakes), Skull Island is home to a variety of different lizards, the absolute strangest of them all perhaps being the semi-appropriately named Iguanatee ( _Sirenosaurus necroinsulus_ ).

For the longest time, the Iguanatee has been a genetic conundrum, with many zoologists having a hard time classifying this odd reptile. It wasn't until 1968 when this mystery was solved, when genetic analysis and the uncovering of 41 million year old fossils in many parts of Southeast Asia show that this animal is an agamid, a group of reptiles that also consist of the North African Uromastyx, the closest living relative of the Iguanatee. With the benefit of hindsight, it is not hard to see why such seemingly different animals are so closely related, especially in terms of their appearance and diet.

The Iguanatee is a massive animal, with an average adult weighing up to 500 kg and having a length of 4.5 meters long. This lizard is a perfect example of convergent evolution, particularly with sirenians (manatees and dugongs). Both groups are strictly herbivorous, feeding on aquatic plants and algae, both are covered in thick skin and blubber used for buoyancy and defense, and both have very wide, powerful tails used to swiftly and gracefully propel their massive bodies through the water. Adult Iguanatees have virtually no natural predators (excluding the occasional Skullcrawler or Bearcroc), with their bulk and speed keeping any potential hunters at bay, allowing them to survive in one of Skull Island's most hostile environments; the Lake of Teeth.

Despite the scientific community now knowing about the origins of this bizarre beast, there is still the mystery of why a large, herbivorous lizard would take to a fully aquatic, viviparous lifestyle. What many scientists have proposed was that giant vegetarian agamids arrived on Skull Island during the early Oligocene, taking to the water to escape the Crocodile Lizards and large birds that prowled the island at the time. A perk of this lifestyle was the ability to hold their breaths for a long time in search of a very abundant food source; aquatic plants. Since then, these agamids stopped laying eggs, instead giving birth to live young underwater, swimming to secluded freshwater lagoons in the jungle to give birth and raise their young until they reach adolescence.

These days, the Iguanatee has become one of the island's most popular native animals. Many tourists arrive during the summer to go to their secluded "birthing lagoons" in order to swim with them once their done protecting their young. They have become popular zoo and aquarium attractions, with some facilities allowing guests to swim with and interact with these gentle giants year round.

 **Author's Note:** The Iguanatee is loosely based on the carnivorous Udusaur from _The World of Kong: A Natural History of Skull Island_. Their carnivorous diet was replaced in order to maintain a carnivore/herbivore balance in Skull Island's freshwater habitats, but the overall size, sociality, and body shape was kept the same.


	22. The Boto Lizard

Boto Lizard ( _Iniamimus encantadus_ )

Of all the squamates (lizards and snakes) that have inhabited this planet for millions of years, none have been as large or as awe-inspiring as the mosasaurs. Mosasaurs were an extinct group of lizards closely related to today's varanids that adapted to a fully aquatic lifestyle, quickly becoming some of the most feared killers in the Cretaceous seas. These "Mesozoic Dolphins" were fast, warm-blooded, viviparous predators, using their sharp teeth, speed, and intelligence to outswim and feast upon the large bounty of fish, squid, sharks, and other marine reptiles that lurked in the Cretaceous oceans. Unfortunately, like many dynasties, mosasaurs went extinct 66 million years ago during the K/Pg mass extinction event alongside nonavian dinosaurs, pterosaurs, ammonites, plesiosaurs, and numerous other animals; or did they?

Despite Skull Island receiving most of its fantastical fauna and flora during different epochs of the Cenozoic, there are some organisms that have existed here since its infancy during the Cretaceous. One such animal is the Boto Lizard ( _Iniamimus encantadus_ ), the last mosasaur on Earth. This large reptile retains many traits its Mesozoic ancestors had, such as its viviparous reproduction habits, its two sets of teeth used for grabbing slippery fish, a tail fluke used for propelling itself in the water, and a thick layer of fat for buoyancy. However, much like the river dolphins of the Amazon, Mekong, and Ganges rivers, it has its own set of traits perfect for freshwater life, chief among these traits being its coloration (a gray dorsal side and a reddish-pink ventral side) used to blend in with the river.

Out of all of Skull Island's native fauna, none has puzzled scientists more so than the Boto Lizard regarding its origin. The current theory is that sometime after the island's formation in the Late Cretaceous, a group of mosasaurs became stranded in the young Mesozoic estuaries. The sea lizards then became adapted to these conditions, their body plans and feeding behaviors adapting to this freshwater environments. One significant change being their size as the current Boto Lizard can only grow as long as a modern Amazon River Dolphin (hence its namesake), compared to the giants of the Late Cretaceous. Nevertheless, these intelligent marine reptiles managed to do well here, becoming some of the most feared predators of the rivers and lakes (the Lake of Teeth housing the island's largest population of these surprisingly social animals).

Today, Boto Lizards, due to their ancient heritage, have become an iconic resident of Skull Island. These creatures, although difficult to breed in captivity, have been featured in a handful of collections over the decades. One famous example, a very friendly male named Pete, is a resident of the New York Aquarium and has even been taught a few simple tricks that some captive cetaceans can do.

 **Author's Note:** The Boto Lizard was inspired by theTurturcassis, a plesiosaur-like aquatic lizard from _The World of Kong: A Natural History of Skull Island_. The captive specimen "Pete" was named after Peter Jackson, the director of the 2005 remake of _King Kong_.


	23. The Skull Island Giant Softshell Turtle

Skull Island Giant Softshell Turtle ( _Pelochelys necroinsulus_ )

Testudines (better known as turtles) are one of the most diverse orders of tetrapods alive today, with many members having their own unique and bizarre traits. One particularly odd family are the softshell turtles, which are characterized by their flat, leathery shells (hence their name) which lack the protective scutes found on the carapaces of other testudines. This one family includes members found in Africa, North America, and Asia, where they come in a variety of sizes, from your typical aquatic turtle size to some that are absolute giants. One such massive softshell can be found along the riverbanks of Skull Island, the aptly-named Skull Island Giant Softshell Turtle ( _Pelochelys necroinsulus_ ).

The Skull Island Giant Softshell Turtle definitely lives up to its name, holding the title as the largest freshwater turtle in the world. This behemoth of a reptile boasts an impressive length of 2.6 meters and a total weight of 280 kg. Like many softshells, it is a territorial and voracious carnivore, with its large size allowing it to take down small to medium-sized fish, reptiles, birds, and mammals (including the children of both the native and non-native human species). This turtle is an effective ambush killer, using its dark coloration and algae-caked carapace to avoid being seen by prey and predator alike. When hunting land-based prey, this turtle waits at the bottom of a river or swamp, before swiftly clamping its sharp beak on an unsuspecting victim. Children of the Skull Island people ( _Homo necroinsulus_ ) are told by their elders to avoid going near the edge of any large body of water because these reptiles pose such a threat.

Just like many other softshells, Skull Island's also has key characteristics shared by others of its family. Its flexible and soft carapace may initially seem like a detriment (it's not the best method of protection), but it allows this creature to swim and even run on land at a faster pace than most turtles. It has many adaptations for breathing while submerged, chiefly its long snout at the end of its beak and the pores around the edges of its mouth and cloaca which are used to extract oxygen even when completely underwater. Also, despite its lack of horny scutes on its shell, it uses its large size, speed and its sharp, flesh-slicing beak to effectively defend itself from predators.

As evidenced by its genus name, the Skull Island Giant Softshell Turtle is closely related to the giant softshells found in other parts of Southeast Asia. It seems to have diverged from its Papuan ancestors around 3 million years ago, when members of the Papua New Guinea species rafted to Skull Island on giant masses of vegetation. Soon afterwards, it grew even bigger than its already massive ancestors, becoming one of the most feared killers in the island's waterways, with a large population of them being found in the heart of the island, the foreboding Lake of Teeth.

 **Author's Note:** The Skull Island Giant Softshell Turtle was inspired by the Sirenjaw, a crocodilian kaiju with vegetation growing on its back featured in the comic _Skull Island: The Birth of Kong_. The jaws of the creature featured in the comic are more similar to a turtle's beak (minus the teeth) than that of a crocodile, being wide, robust, and very sharp.


	24. The Draconic Arowana

Draconic Arowana ( _Megascleropages ferox_ )

Arowanas (family name; Osteoglossidae) are a group of primitive freshwater fish with a history dating as far back as the Cretaceous period. These fish are characterized by their elongated bodies, heavy scales, and a bony tooth-like structure at the base of their tongues. Today, these ancient creatures can be found in South America, Africa, Australia, and Southeast Asia. Skull Island has just one species of these curious fish, the Draconic Arowana (Megascleropages ferox).

Even though many species of arowanas can get fairly large (including many Asian species), the Draconic Arowana is the largest of its kind, with a total length of 2.15 meters and weighing up to 136 kg. This carnivorous beast's large size allows it to hunt prey that other tropical Asian arowanas cannot, such as birds, larger fish, turtles, snakes, and small to medium-sized mammals (including, but very rarely, humans). How this animal hunts depends on its target; with terrestrial prey (such as birds and mammals) being the victims of ambush attacks (similar to crocodiles), and aquatic prey being chased down by this surprisingly efficient endurance swimmer. The "Draconic" part of its name is due to its ferocity combined with its appearance to Chinese dragons (hence why arowanas as a whole are sometimes referred to as "dragonfishes").

As one could tell by the origin of its genus name (with the prefix "mega" being added to this particular species), the Draconic Arowana has its evolutionary origins with smaller Australasian arowanas. However, at the moment, it is still unknown whether this species descended from a Southeast Asian stock or an Australian stock. Nevertheless, its ancestry can be traced back to other parts of the Indo-Pacific. This species is the only species of arowana native to Skull Island (smaller fossil specimens have been found, but they usually turn out to be direct ancestors of the Draconic Arowana or species that have been outcompeted by other fish).

Like others of its family, the Draconic Arowana is a dedicated air breather, surfacing to gulp oxygen and transferring it to its swim bladder, a behavior seen in many carnivorous freshwater fish (like the Neotropical arapaimas). Females lay up to 40-90 eggs at a time in the male's mouth (a practice called mouthbrooding), keeping the developing larvae safe from predators. These large fish reach sexual maturity at 4 years of age, though the population of giant fishes is kept down due to many not surviving shortly after maturation.

Due to its large size and predatory nature, the Draconic Arowana has gained a beastly reputation with the endemic human species of Skull Island, with their mythology painting them as demons that must be fed the remains of kills so that they cannon attack young children (a reputation shared with the Skull Island Giant Softshell Turtle). Outside of Skull Island, much like other arowanas, it is a popular aquarium fish, with its large size and ferocity attracting many patrons (similar to arapaimas and Wels Catfish). Unfortunately, this fish is also prized by illegal wildlife markets, being sold for meat and the exotic pet trade in mainland Asia. On a brighter note, many aquarium specimens are actually rescues from these illegal businesses, as they usually cannot be returned back to the wild.

 **Author's Note:** The Draconic Arowana is based on the Piranhadon from _The World of Kong: A Speculative History of Skull Island_ , a strange, carnivorous Devonian fish that exhibits behaviors such as coming onto land and giving birth to live young. While the former is obviously not uncommon in some fishes, the latter is almost impossible in bony fish.


	25. The Aquaroo

Aquaroo ( _Ornitherium amphibius_ )

When it comes to Skull Island's native mammals, none seem to be quite as strange as its resident macropod marsupials. While Australia and Papua New Guinea are already home to a wide selection of different macropods, most (aside from the jungle-dwelling tree kangaroos) tend to have very similar traits; chiefly large, hind paws used for jumping, a sloping tail for balance, and a herbivorous diet. Skull Island, on the other hand, is home to a very different cast of macropods (discounting Tiger Island's native tree kangaroos); the primarily carnivorous ornitheres. This bizarre group of marsupials is best represented by the hypercarnivorous Marsupial Dhole, but this island is home to several more members that descended from the same population of Miocene omnivorous kangaroos that brought us the Marsupial Dholes, the subject of this journal entry being one of them; the Aquaroo (Ornitherium amphibius).

On the surface, there doesn't seem to be much of a difference between the Aquaroo and the Marsupial Dhole other than the smaller size. However, a closer look at this strange mammal shows its unique adaptations. Judging by its species name, the Aquaroo is semiaquatic, with sharp-clawed front paws for grasping slippery meals, flattened, webbed hind paws for swimming above water, a very short tail to reduce underwater drag, and a thin, elongated snout filled with sharp, needle-like teeth used for catching fish. In fact, much like other ornitheres (translated roughly to "bird beasts"), the anatomy and behavior of this odd kangaroo is a case of convergent evolution with piscivorous birds (as evidenced by its posture, diet, and locomotion).

Unlike their larger grassland cousins, aquaroos do not see other large, terrestrial animals as food. Although, when threatened by a terrestrial predator, they will diligently fight back using its sharp claws and teeth, which can potentially cause severe blood loss if the wound is untreated. While swimming, this marsupial, unfortunately, cannot fight back against submerged hunters, thus forcing to use its powerful legs to swim away as fast as possible to dry land. Typical prey items of the aquaroo consist of small fish, aquatic reptiles, juvenile brackish octopuses, small mammals, amphibians, invertebrates (especially worms and insects), and (rarely) the eggs of ground-nesting birds.

As with all macropods, female aquaroos have foreward-facing pouches used for raising tiny, bean-sized joeys until they are roughly three months old. Once a joey reaches this age, it will live with its parents (adults mate for life) until it reaches sexual maturity, in which it will put the survival skills it learns from its parents to good use. Although female aquaroos usually give birth to a single joey at a time, occurrences of twins are not uncommon. Twins regularly fight each other, but, in order to keep them from accidentally killing one another, the parents use their high intelligence to prevent further conflicts.

 **Author's Note:** The aquaroo is based on the Ambulaquasaurus from _The World of Kong: A Speculative History of Skull Island_. It is a piscivorous dromaeosaur-like dinosaur said to be related to the Venatosaurus from the same book.


	26. The Skull ISland Fur Seal

Skull Island Fur Seal ( _Nanotarius necroinsulus_ )

Pinnipeds are among the most successful carnivorans, with their claim to fame being their marine lifestyle. Today, this group of mammals (descended from bears) consists of walruses, true seals, and eared seals. The animal that is the focus of this entry is a member of the eared seal family (Otariidae), which consists of the sea lions and the fur seals. Many species of eared seal are well-known for their intelligence, social structure, playfulness, and ability to walk surprisingly well on land (unlike true seals which can only slide or bounce). But by far the oddest eared seal is a native of Skull Island's freshwater ecosystems; the Skull Island Fur Seal (Nanotarius necroinsulus).

The first thing about the Skull Island Fur Seal that stands out is its preference to freshwater rivers and lakes over marine biomes. Although it is bizarre, freshwater pinnipeds are not unheard of elsewhere (such as a species of true seal found only in Lake Baikal in Russia). But what truly makes this fur seal strange is not its choice of habitat, rather it is its anatomy and behavior that really makes it stand out. This fur seal is much smaller than others (a case of island dwarfism), with juvenile proportions occurring well into adulthood (a phenomenon known as neoteny). This carnivore has even stranger behaviors, being more similar to many otters than to seals or sea lions. Skull Island fur seals live in small to medium-sized groups, using cooperative pack hunting to take down larger animals. In fact, these seals have even been known to hunt fully grown Pseudocondas, Draconic Arowanas, Skull Island Giant Softshell Turtles, and many other large river predators (a behavior not uncommonly seen in the giant otters that prowl the Amazon Rainforest). However, despite their ferocity and ravenous appetites, they still need to be aware of land predators, which often go after their pups.

Unlike most pinnipeds whose social groups usually consist of a dominant male (called a beachmaster) and his harem of females, Skull Island Fur Seals have a very unique social structure. Instead of there being one dominant male, pods consist of 3-4 males which go out hunting while 8-10 females bask along the banks of the jungle rivers, raising pups and protecting their territory from rival pods or predators. To avoid interbreeding within pods, male seals each have their own unique scent, which is secreted by special glands near the anus and passed down to their offspring.

Skull Island Fur Seals have done fairly well in captivity, with more than 40 individual zoological facilities keeping them in their collections. Many of these zoo/aquarium specimens are either descendants from a wild-caught stock from 1948 or rescues from the illegal pet, meat and fur trade. These small pinnipeds are popular with guests, usually demonstrating their power, agility, and intelligence through keeper-led activities.

 **Author's Note:** Skull Island Fur Seals are very different from their generic counterparts from _The World of Kong_ , having a lifestyle similar to the Amazonian Giant Otter.


	27. Flies and Serpents

Bog Viper ( _Hydrovipera ferox_ )

Though Skull Island has gained a reputation for being one of the most biodiverse places in the world, the overall population of snake genera is not as diverse. Apart from its collection of ancient boas and madtsoiids, most of the snakes on Skull Island are pythons, colubrids, and elapids (which are only found on Tiger Island). Strangely, the island is home to a relative lack of vipers, except one, the Bog Viper ( _Hydrovipera ferox_ ).

The 180 cm long Bog Viper is the only species of venomous snake found on Skull Island proper (Tiger Island has a few populations of sea kraits and endemic cobras), making it unique among its neighbors. Scientists hypothesize that the reason why venomous snakes are only represented by one species on the island is due to the large centipedes that prowl the treetops of the rainforest, their bites having toxicity on par with many highly-venomous snakes. The ancestors of the Bog Viper were probably arboreal (hence its genetic similarities with the Asian Pit Viper), but they traveled to the ground to avoid competition with the centipedes (though they are still good climbers, as demonstrated by multiple skittish captive specimens). As a result of this grounded lifestyle, these vipers became excellent at swimming and hiding (a case of convergent evolution with the cottonmouths of the southern United States), their dark camouflage allowing them to seem almost invisible amongst the black water swamps that dot the tropical forests of the island. This camouflage is useful for both hunting prey and avoiding predators, which may be another reason why they are the only venomous snakes on the main island despite all odds.

When it comes to the potency of the Bog Viper's venom, it is surprisingly deadly, with toxicity levels comparable to the infamous Bushmaster of Central America. Their primary diet of fish, frogs, and other aquatic animals could be the reason for their lethal venom and somewhat aggressive nature, as highly-potent toxins is crucial when hunting fast-swimming prey. Fortunately, like many land-dwelling venomous snakes, antivenom has been developed and has even been distributed to the native humans of the island, so snakebites aren't that much of a concern.

But by far the most interesting fact about the Bog Viper is its bizarre relationship with the Goliath Mosquito ( _Ophiculex gigas_ ). The female flies often intentionally lay their eggs in still, swampy pools near the territory of vipers (which are usually characterized by the abundance of rotting logs or shady vegetation for the reptiles to hide in). The reason why these bloodsucking insects specifically raise their young near the nesting sites of vipers is so that their eggs/larvae aren't devoured by small fish and frogs that the snakes prey on. Even though earlier studies labeled this relationship as a case of commensalism (one organism benefits while the other is neither helped nor harmed), recent studies have shed a much more mutualistic light on this odd couple (the vegetarian mosquitoes mimic biting flies, which scare away large animals which could harm the snake).

Goliath Mosquito ( _Ophiculex gigas_ )

When it comes to insects, none seem to be as maligned as mosquitoes. The hematophagous habits of female mosquitoes have saddled these flies with a reputation that ranges from annoying to downright deadly. Understandably, their association with disease comes from the fact that they are the most common vectors for some of the deadliest diseases known to the human race (namely Yellow Fever, Malaria, and West Nile Virus). Though this reputation is justified (medicinal advances are absolutely crucial for stopping further deaths at the hands of these diseases), many people fail to realize that mosquitoes still play important roles in their ecosystems (male mosquitoes are excellent pollinators and mosquitoes as a whole are important sources of food for bats, larger insects, and carnivorous plants). Most mosquitoes do not grow that large, but there is one species that is an exception to the rule, the Skull Island endemic appropriately called the Goliath Mosquito ( _Ophiculex gigas_ ).

The Goliath Mosquito, true to its common name, is the largest species of mosquito, with a wingspan of 19 mm and a body length of 26 mm. Due to their size, a diet of blood is not suitable for mothers and their larvae (despite evolving from ectoparasitic ancestors as told by genetic studies), prompting these flies to develop an mostly herbivorous lifestyle, in which the adults feed on carbohydrate-rich plant juices and saps, and the larvae feed on the larvae of smaller, parasitic mosquitoes. This mostly vegetarian diet that both sexes demonstrate is an example of convergent evolution with "elephant mosquitoes" (genus _Toxorhynchites_ ), which have similar feeding behaviors. Like other mosquitoes, the Goliath Mosquito's larvae is aquatic, surviving well in still bodies of water such as ponds, swamps, and small lakes.

As stated above in the entry about the Bog Viper ( _Hydrovipera ferox_ ), female Goliath Mosquitoes are known for laying their eggs near the territories (especially the nesting sites) of these deadly snakes. The aforementioned mutualism theory that is supported by many zoologists states that, rather than being commensalistic, the relationship between the flies and the snakes is actually mutual because the snakes feed on potential predators of mosquito larvae, and the mosquito's color patterns mimic those of their parasitic cousins, discouraging larger animals from accidentally disturbing the reptiles' nesting sites. This hypothesis has gained lots of traction over the years ever since genetic studies showed that the Goliath Mosquito evolved from a parasitic ancestor, thus explaining why these gentle giants still sport these threatening color patterns (most mosquitoes that are endemic to Skull Island sport some kind of white and black coloration).

 **Author's Note:** Both the Bog Viper and the Goliath Mosquito are based on the respective larva and adult stages of the Swamp Locust, a giant, insectoid creature featured in the Legendary Comics series _Skull Island: The Birth of Kong_.


	28. The Snapping Platypus

Snapping Platypus ( _Chelydratherium vulgaris_ )

Once believed to be a hoax by 18th Century European naturalists, the Platypus ( _Ornithorhynchus anatinus_ ) has since become a cultural icon of Australia, alongside the Kangaroo, the Koala, the Emu, and the Saltwater Crocodile. These seemingly chimeric beasts are members of a primitive group of mammals known as the monotremes, which are known for retaining the ability to lay eggs. The platypus of Australia is a predator of crayfish, insects, and worms, however Skull Island has a platypus that prefers larger game; the Snapping Platypus ( _Chelydratherium vulgaris_ ).

Descendants of Miocene platypodes, the Snapping Platypus, though similar in size to the Australian one, has a serrated bill whose edges are reinforced with hardened keratin to make snaring large prey easier. Convergently evolving to resemble the snapping turtles of the New World, this monotreme not only hunts invertebrates like its Australian relative, but also fish, frogs, small mammals, snakes, and even small wading birds. This animal hunts in the island's swamps, using its brown, oily fur to camouflage with the murky water.

Like all monotremes, the Snapping Platypus lays eggs rather than giving birth to live young. During breeding season, males fight for females using the venomous spurs attached to their hind feet. The victorious male gets to mate with a receptive female, who then digs a burrow on the side of the swamp to lay her eggs.

 **Author's Note:** In _The World of Kong: a Speculative History of Skull Island_ , there is a species of snapping turtle present on the island. However, since snapping turtles are not native to the Old World, I substituted a platypus instead.


	29. The Skull Island Wobbegong

Skull Island Wobbegong ( _Eucrossorhinus paradoxus_ )

Much of what we have learned about the history of our planet and the organisms, living and extinct, comes from the presumed original home of life itself; the ocean. Even though many plants and animals eventually reached and colonized dry land, the ocean is still home to most of Earth's lifeforms today, some of which have changed relatively little. Sharks are among those organisms, for 430 million years, this group of cartilaginous fish have cemented their reputation as one of the ocean's most diverse and successful groups of predators, developing many methods of surviving in this inviting, yet equally hostile, blue world. Arguably one of the strangest of these magnificent creatures, the family of sharks that make up the wobbegongs ( _Orectolobidae_ ), which are known for their ability to blend in with the sea floor whenever they are hunting or avoiding being hunted. But by far the oddest member of this already odd family of fish is the Skull Island Wobbegong ( _Eucrossorhinus paradoxus_ ), one of the very few sharks in the world that can tolerate freshwater habitats.

As evidenced by its genus name, the Skull Island Wobbegong is very closely related to the Tasseled Wobbegong ( _Eucrossorhinus dasypogon_ ), which hides in the coral reefs of Papua New Guinea and northern Australia. Meanwhile, this shark is endemic to the main island's estuaries and freshwater rivers and lakes. Scientists presume that, not to long ago in prehistoric times, the Tasseled and Skull Island wobbegongs shared a common ancestor, one of which stayed in its marine environment, while the other followed food into Skull Island's mangrove swamps, eventually developing a tolerance to fresh water and further seeking out prey in more inland bodies of water. While freshwater tolerance is not anything new in sharks (such as the Bull and Crocodile Sharks), it is especially rare when one become fully adapted to life in freshwater ecosystems (the only other occurrences of this are the freshwater sharks of Southeast Asia, and the freshwater stingrays of South America).

Despite its drastic change in habitat, the Skull Island Wobbegong still uses the same tricks its oceanic cousins use. Flattening its body along the bottom of a river or lake, the shark's mottled brown and olive-green hide makes it almost invisible. This master of disguise then wags its tail in order for it to resemble a small fish, enticing hungry prey to come closer. Game of choice for this 1.9 meter beast include lungfish, frogs, tetras, arowannas, aquatic worms, small mammals, snakes, and Brackish Octopuses.

Like most other carpet sharks, the Skull Island Wobbegong is a solitary animal, only interacting with others of its kind when it is time to mate. When mating, the male uses its claspers (sex organs found in many sharks) to anchor itself to the female, afterwards, the two part ways. Females are ovoviviparous, which means that the eggs are still laid, but inside the mother.

 **Author's Note:** The Skull Island Wobbegong was inspired by two teleost fish featured in _The World of Kong: A Natural History of Skull Island_ called the Sepulcro and the Papilio, which, like the shark, are portrayed as freshwater ambush hunters.


	30. The Mudbird

Mudbird ( _Geornis telmus_ )

Among the groups of birds alive today, the most primitive (yet also one of the most successful) has to be the ratites. Found almost all over the southern hemisphere (though some, like the moas of New Zealand and the elephant bird of Madagascar, have recently gone extinct), this well-recognized group of birds is an ancient dynasty, being the only surviving paleognaths, and having existed since the very beginning of the Cenozoic (and possibly even the very end of the Cretaceous). These (mostly) flightless avians seem to thrive especially well on islands, where many of them have grown to immense sizes comparable to mainland mammals. Skull Island is home to many ratites (all of whom are flightless) that are members of the clade _Novaeratitae_ , which is comprised of the cassowaries, emus, kiwis, and the extinct elephant bird outside of Skull Island. Though all of the island's ratites are unique in their own way, there is one that is, arguably, more bizarre than all the others; the Mudbird ( _Geornis telmus_ ).

Mudbirds are large creatures, standing at 1.5 meters tall and weighing 76 kilograms, tall enough to look an average-sized human in the eye. They are easily identifiable, with their long legs, feet with slight webbing in between the toes, narrow beaks with small serrations, whisker-like feathers surrounding the base of the beak, vestigial wings, and oily plumage. These aforementioned traits give away its ecological niche, that of a piscivorous aquatic predator (naturalists often describe it in informal terms as a "giant flightless merganser duck"). These amphibious ratites stalk the swamps and marshes of Skull Island at night (their dark brown plumage providing efficient camouflage), trapping unlucky fish, frogs, snakes (including Bog Vipers), small mammals, and invertebrates in their serrated bills. Though they prefer hunting in still bodies of water, their slim beaks adorned with "whiskers" also makes them good at catching burrowing animals as well as aquatic ones (hence their common name). These sensory feathers that stud the base of the bill compensate for their poor eyesight, as they use these feathers to sense the vibrations of creatures swimming under the water's surface.

For the longest time, the Mudbird's relationship with other ratites was unknown. Early phylogenetic studies placed them in the same group as emus and cassowaries (due to their similar size to the latter), but now, thanks to the discovery of DNA, we now know that Mudbirds are more closely related to the New Zealand kiwis and the extinct elephant bird of Madagascar. This is further supported by these birds' behavior and appearance as, like the kiwi, they have "whiskers", relatively poor eyesight, a superb sense of smell, and a habit at hunting at night.

Mudbirds mate for life with the female laying one egg at a time. Their chick-rearing habits are also tied to their marshy homes, as they usually construct their nests inside the gnarled roots of large cypress trees, which provide protection for newborn chicks. When raising a chick, the mother usually is the one to go out hunting, while the father protects the chick from predators. Cypress trees (and swamp vegetation as a whole) are preferred nesting sites for these unusually intelligent birds because, if out near running water, there's more predators that can snag unprotected chicks (including the Aquaroo, which, along with occupying a similar feeding niche to the Mudbird, has a habit of eating the eggs and hatchlings of water birds).

 **Author's Note:** The Mudbird is based on the Scissor-Head, a strange, bipedal, amphibious, flightless pterosaur from _The World of Kong: A Natural History of Skull Island_.


	31. The Schooling Pouched Lamprey

Schooling Pouched Lamprey ( _Geotria scylla_ )

For the past billions of years, life on Earth has always been, and still is, changing. Sadly, with these changes, many charismatic organisms (sometimes entire families and orders) go extinct in the process, forgotten as time and natural selection march on. Though this is not always the case as, even today, relics of ages gone by still exist because of how successful they are. These so-called "living fossils" are able to hold on simply due to the lack of competition with other organisms for their respective niches. Popular organisms that can be categorized as such include the two remaining coelacanths, ginkgo trees, horseshoe crabs, and a plethora of animals and plants that make their home on islands, far away from competition. Skull Island is one such refuge for these seemingly anachronistic lifeforms, as many of them are the descendants of organisms that, during the Paleogene and Neogene, were common on continents, but have since gone extinct everywhere except the island. There are many fantastic examples of "living fossils" on Skull Island, but the subject of this passage can trace its ancestry even further than the Cenozoic; the Schooling Pouched Lamprey ( _Geotria scylla_ ).

Like all lampreys, the Dwarf Pouched Lamprey is an agnathan (commonly called jawless fish), which are all textbook examples of "living fossils" (also known as stabiliomorphs) because of the fact that, while they were very common during the beginning of the Paleozoic, all but a handful of them went extinct due to competition with their jawed relatives (which were also likely to be their descendants). Besides the bloodsucking lampreys, the only other class of extant agnathans is the slimy hagfish that lurk below the ocean's abyss, feasting on carrion. Back to the Schooling Pouched Lamprey, it is one of two members of the family _Geotriidae_ , along with its presumed ancestor the Pouched Lamprey, which can be found throughout the Southern Hemisphere. The adult stage of the Schooling Pouched Lamprey seems to display traits often seen in the larval stage of its widespread oceanic ancestor, such as a less-bulbous pouch on its head and a distinct black coloration.

Much like most other lampreys, the Schooling Pouched Lamprey is an ectoparasite, feeding on the blood of larger fish as well as the occasional large tetrapod. How this primitive hematophagous fish feeds is by latching on to the side of its host and twisting itself from side to side (due to its lack of jaws) to draw blood with its hook-like teeth. What makes these lampreys seem more terrifying is that they actually display crude social behaviors (hence the animal's common name), as they often swim in schools for protection against predators (the formations they make when they swim together bring to mind the Greek monster Scylla, hence its species name). While these grisly beasts may seem intimidating at first, there have been no reported instances of humans being seen as hosts by these lampreys (in fact, many members of the endemic human species of Skull Island see these creatures as a popular food source, due to their abundancy).

Like its ancestor, the Schooling Pouched Lamprey can be found in different ecosystems depending on its stage in life. However, one thing regarding its life cycle that is different from the standard Pouched Lamprey is that, while its larger ancestor starts its life living in freshwater rivers before moving to coastal seas once it reaches adulthood, island isolation has forced Skull Island's lamprey to be a permanent resident of freshwater habitats. Larval lampreys start their lives in deeper parts of the island's swamps and small lakes, where there are plenty of small fish to parasitize and algae patches to hide in. Once the fish reach sexual maturity, they leave these still bodies of water in search of rivers and larger lakes, which can accommodate their size.

 **Author's Note:** The Schooling Pouched Lamprey is derived from the Killer Eel, a hypercarnivorous lamprey-like creature featured in _The World of Kong: A Natural History of Skull Island_.


	32. The Dire Crocodile

Dire Crocodile ( _Crocodylus dirus_ )

Out of all of the reptiles most are familiar with, there is no other group that inspires awe and fear in humans more than crocodilians. These amphibious ambush predators have existed for millions of years and, even though (despite their reputation as being "living fossils") modern "crocodiles" have only existed for roughly 47 million years, as a whole, these beasts have a long and successful history. One such reptile that strikes fear in the hearts of people living in the region of Australasia is the infamous Saltwater Crocodile ( _Crocodylus porosus_ ), a creature that has gained a reputation as a man eater. Though one aspect of crocodiles (and arguably crocodilians as a whole) that isn't touched upon as much is their intelligence, which, contrasting with their brutish appearance, is surprisingly astute. Though many crocodilians display great feats of intelligence, one notable species from Skull Island that is closely related to the above-mentioned Saltwater Crocodile is particularly known for these feats; the Dire Crocodile ( _Crocodylus dirus_ ).

Though Skull Island is famous for its bizarre and unique fauna that barely resembles anything else alive on Earth today, it should be noted that even the more mundane-looking beasts have their quirks and that one should never judge a book by its cover. The Dire Crocodile, though seemingly resembling other members of its genus (its saltwater cousin in particular), is an excellent example of this as it has many unique behaviors rarely seen in other crocodilians. Its most striking trait has to be its intelligence, which is demonstrated in a variety of cognitive behaviors. One of these behaviors is its tendency to hunt in loosely-formed packs, which is a strategy used by the two meter long reptiles to hunt and kill prey almost twice their size (such as Pouched River Giants). This social hunting strategy is not unique to the Dire Crocodile (Cuban Crocodiles also practice it as well), however, these Skull Island endemics are more prone to use it because of the relative abundance of large herbivores to feed on (during the Pleistocene, Cuban Crocodiles probably would have used this strategy more because there were still large megafauna to hunt, like giant owls, rodents, and sloths).

While this crocodile's tendency to hunt in packs is its big claim to fame, it is far from the limit of its dazzling intelligence. Captive Dire Crocodiles have been trained to perform simple tasks in order to receive treats, such as pulling levers with their forelimbs which may or may not open the hatch of a chute which contains the meaty treat (similar trial and error tests have been performed by varanid lizards in captivity). In the wild, these large reptiles also put their social skill to good use when guarding their nests, as both males and females sometimes take turns incubating each other's eggs (even when they aren't the biological parents). Though the reason for why these animals perform such fantastic cognitive feats is still unclear, the leading hypothesis is that life on an island full of larger, more dangerous predators forced these crocodiles to live in groups for protection. Over time, they started using their social behavior for hunting and group parenting, thus allowing the species to carve out a unique niche in Skull Island's freshwater ecosystems.

 **Author's Note:** The Dire Crocodile is based on a somewhat generic-looking crocodile featured in _The World of Kong: A Natural History of Skull Island_ known as Dirisuchus.


	33. The Lardamander

Lardamander ( _Bivalvosaurus lethargus_ )

The group of tetrapods collectively known as amphibians is a mysterious bunch, namely how, for a long time, science was unsure of where they came from. Though many living amphibians do closely resemble some of the earliest tetrapods, they are still quite derived compared to their distant extinct ancestors. However, with the discoveries of both Skull Island and DNA, more light has been shed on the mysterious origin of creatures like frogs, salamanders, and caecilians. Skull Island's waterways are home to an ancient group of tetrapods known as the temnospondyls, which existed on continents from the Late Devonian to the Middle Cretaceous. Competition with animals such as crocodilians caused the extinction of all mainland members of this diverse salamander-like group, with the only ones alive today being found on two remote islands, one of which being Skull Island. Though Skull Island has a handful of unique temnospondyls, the most recognizable in the eye of the public has to be the aptly-named Lardamander ( _Bivalvosaurus lethargus_ ).

Named for its flabby appearance, the Lardamander, while it may seem like a lethargic evolutionary "dead-end", is a master of its environment. The layers of fat that cover its body, in addition to its large size (with a length of 1.5 meters and a weight of 43 kilograms), provide this blubbery beast with suitable protection from predators contrary to their sluggish behavior. But size and shape are not the only tricks the Lardamander has to avoid being eaten, as this animal uses its slimy, brown hide to blend in with the bottom of rivers. But by far the most effective defense mechanism this bizarre "living fossil" has is its poisonous skin, which is dotted with glands that secrete a cocktail of toxins which is often deadly to most predators when ingested.

As hinted by its genus name, the diet of the Lardamander primarily consists of freshwater clams, of which there are hundreds of endemic species native to Skull Island. The temnospondyl's blunt, crushing teeth and strong, acidic stomach make short work of the tough shells of its bivalve prey. Despite feeding primarily on clams, that doesn't mean that these large animals do not go after other prey, as crustaceans, snails, worms, fish, and (rarely) small tetrapods are also taken if available.

Though a handful of temnospondyls currently inhabit Skull Island, the Lardamander is one of the most specialized. Much like its relatives, this flabby creature is a member of a group of temnospondyls known as the Koolasuchids, which were the last remaining temnospondyls by the Cretaceous period. While other Mesozoic temnospondyls went extinct due to competition with crocodilians, Koolasuchids were still able to carve out ecological niches in Australia and Antarctica (which, during the Cretaceous, were too cold for primitive crocodylomorphs to live). Eventually, the last of the temnospondyls of mainland Australia and Antarctica died out with their descendants only being found on two islands today. How these creatures were able to reach these islands is still a mystery, but the best hypothesis states that the ancestors of these ancient predators reached their destinations by floating on vegetation rafts that were carried by storms. Over time, each new species of temnospondyl became more and more specialized for a different lifestyle, resulting in the Lardamander and its close relatives.

 **Author's Note:** The Lardamander is based on a temnospondyl featured in _The World of Kong: A Natural History of Skull Island_ called the Limusaurs (not to be confused with the real life basal ceratosaur of the same name).


	34. The River Quinkan

River Quinkan ( _Hydrodon amphibius_ )

When it comes to Skull Island's primary cast of apex predators, two groups tend to stick out in the public consciousness; large carnivorous marsupials and mekosuchid crocodiles (collectively known as quinkans). The latter group was once relatively unknown outside of the Australian paleontology community, that was until the living descendants of these Australian crocodilians were thoroughly studied on Skull Island. The subfamily of crocodilians known as _Mekosuchinae_ first appeared in the fossil record in Eocene Australian strata, where they are known for their oddly terrestrial behavior compared to their relatives' roles as aquatic ambush predators. Even stranger were the arboreal natures of some of the smaller species and it was this group of ancient quinkans which colonized Skull Island during the Miocene, bringing forth a myriad of different species, each one fulfilling a unique role in the island's overall ecosystem. One such quinkan is the appropriately-named River Quinkan ( _Hydrodon amphibious_ ), a common sight on the banks of the island's flowing waterways.

The River Quinkan is a medium-sized (standing about as tall as an adolescent human) mekosuchid crocodilian that is specialized for a piscivorous diet. It can easily be identified by its grayish-brown scutes (which are not as defensive as other crocodilians in order to give the animal more maneuverability), slender jaws for catching fish, small, five-fingered forelimbs, and long, heron-like hind legs which allow it to gracefully wade along the shallows. Though the aforementioned characteristics are present in both sexes, this archosaur is sexually dimorphic as males possess long yellow-colored spiny growths along the dorsal side of its body, using these odd projections as a display to intimidate rival males and entice females (which have shorter dorsal spines which are colored grayish-brown like the rest of its scaly hide).

As mentioned before, River Quinkans are masters at fishing, using their long, thin jaws and needle-like teeth to snare unsuspecting fish and invertebrates. Arguably, much like how other mekosuchids can be seen as terrestrial counterparts of traditionally aquatic crocodiles, this species can be seen as a terrestrial equivalent to the Indian Gharial. This animal, as well as other Skull Island quinkans, is also mesothermic, which means that it has a higher metabolism than most reptiles (it generates a lot more of its own body heat), allowing it to have a much more active lifestyle. Unfortunately, this beast's slender design forced it to sacrifice its defensive covering of scutes, instead relying on speed and camouflage to outwit predators.

 **Author's Note:** The River Quinkan is based on the Peracerdon, a dwarf species of spinosaur-like theropod in _The World of Kong: A Natural History of Skull Island_.


	35. The Needle-Toothed Snakehead

Needle-Toothed Snakehead ( _Crocodylochanna ferox_ )

The family Channidae (also known as the Snakeheads) is a bizarre group of predatory freshwater fish found throughout tropical Asia (though some species can be found as far north as Russia). The size range of these fish is diverse with a wide collection of both giants and miniatures. Though no matter what size a snakehead is, most follow the same basic feeding pattern of ambushing their prey from below. While this strategy is the one followed by most members of this strange family, Skull Island is home to a snakehead that practices something entirely different; the Needle-Toothed Snakehead ( _Crocodylochanna ferox_ ).

Believed to stem from the same common ancestor as the Southeast Asian Giant Snakehead ( _Channa micropeltes_ ), long periods of island isolation has turned the Needle-Toothed Snakehead into its own genus. This is evident by its derived anatomy, as the eponymous snake-like head other members of its family are known for has been replaced by an elongated snout full of small, sharp teeth (similar to that of a pike or a gar). Adding to its strange appearance is the rest of its body, which is more streamlined than that of most snakeheads. In fact, when it was first discovered by modern science, it was believed that it was a distant relative of the North American gars, until genetics and close examinations of its anatomy placed it as a derived snakehead.

The streamlined appearance of this fish gives clues to its lifestyle. Rather than being an ambush predator like other snakeheads, the Needle-Toothed Snakehead is (oddly enough) a swift-moving pursuit predator. This 25 kg, 0.71 m long fish has evolved for speed, allowing it to chase after small fish, invertebrates, and small amphibians. However, even though this snakehead is fast, it is not a good endurance swimmer, thus preventing it from chasing its prey for very long. If a hunt fails, it is not uncommon to see these creatures take large gulps of air to rejuvenate (more proof of them being derived snakeheads).

To complement its speedy nature, the Needle-Toothed Snakehead is usually found in Skull Island's large rivers and streams (although some populations have been found in the Lake of Teeth). During mating season though, females can often be found in still bodies of water filled with vegetation, as these weed-choked ponds are a perfect place to lay eggs. Due to being common sights in the rivers of Skull Island, the native humans have hunted these fish for thousands of years, impaling them with spears and cooking them (on a side note, their flesh is considered a delicacy).

 **Author's Note:** The Needle-Toothed Snakehead is based on a swift-moving, predatory gar-like fish in _The World of Kong: a Natural History of Skull Island_ called the Needlemouth.


	36. The Salagator

Salagator ( _Gulosaurus paradoxus_ )

As mentioned before in the entry for the Lardamander, Skull Island is one of two final bastions of sanctuary for the temnospondyls, the possible ancestors of modern amphibians. These ancient tetrapods once dominated the waters from the Carboniferous to the Triassic, evolving into a plethora of odd and fantastic forms. Unfortunately, temnospondyls' reign over aquatic ecosystems was toppled by reptiles during the Mesozoic, with the last continental members of their kind going extinct during the Cretaceous in what is now Australia and Antarctica. How temnospondyls were able to reach these two islands and survive into the modern day is still unknown, but the most plausible explanation is that Cretaceous temnospondyls (a family called the Koolasuchids) were carried to these infant islands on vegetation rafts during a massive storm. Since then, various temnospondyls specialized into many forms when they reached their new homes, and one of Skull Island's is no different; the Salagator ( _Gulosaurus paradoxus_ ).

The Salagator was the first of Skull Island's temnospondyls to be discovered by modern science, its species name referring to its status as a seemingly anachronistic creature. It is the largest temnospondyl on the island, weighing up to 60 kg and measuring as long as 2 m. It also has the most conservative body plan and lifestyle, retaining traits seen in its Cretaceous ancestors such as a broad head, a wide mouth filled with sharp teeth, a massive tail for swimming, short limbs, and its hunting strategy of waiting for an animal to drink from a stream and lunging forward, its mouth like a massive bear trap. Also, like other temnospondyls (and many of today's amphibians), it goes through metamorphosis, with its tiny larval form displaying feathery gills.

Though this animal seems completely unchanged from its ancestors, it must be remembered that evolution doesn't work like that, as all organism lineages, in some way, go through changes, no matter how miniscule they may be. This is definitely the case with the Salagator as many field studies have uncovered many bizarre behaviors of this ancient beast. Much like its namesake, the American Alligator ( _Alligator mississippiensis_ ), the Salagator has sometimes been observed climbing into low-hanging trees in search of different food sources. While primarily carnivorous (as many of these arboreal meals are animals like birds, lizards, snakes, megapedes, and small mammals), Salagators have sometimes been seen eating fruit when they venture into the understory. Although this practice is seen in Salagators, it unfortunately also puts them at risk from being eaten by larger arboreal predators, which they cannot hide from because of the lack of a body of water.

 **Author's Note:** The Salagator is based on a diplocaulid from _The World of Kong: a Natural History of Skull Island_ called the Inox.


	37. The Central Semi-Desert

The Central Semi-desert

Since its discovery, Skull Island has been a textbook example of how islands can become homes for ancient and bizarre species found nowhere else on Earth, their isolated homes being time capsules harkening back to bygone eras. While Skull Island as a whole is a unique place home to several strange, almost prehistoric, lifeforms, the island's semi-desert is perhaps its oddest biome. Surrounded on all sides by mountains, the semi-desert is nestled near the center of the island, blocking monsoon winds from encroaching upon the dusty landscape, bringing about a dry and arid pocket in an otherwise humid and rainy landmass.

Discovered in 1948, the semi-desert is, arguably, the oldest location on the island, with many of its fauna and flora being descendants of the Indo-Madagascar subcontinent stock that made up Skull Island's original Late Cretaceous populations. As more and more small islands compiled during the Paleocene to make the Skull Island we know today, the semi-desert became surrounded by mountains created from continental drift, resulting in a (mostly) isolated world that closely resembles the spiny forests of Madagascar, with thorny trees jutting from a vast swath of sand, dirt, and rock. Even stranger are the animals that inhabit this K/Pg boundary time capsule, with notosuchians, gondwanatheres, and other ancient oddities appearing in higher abundance than the rest of the island.

This semi-desert has proven itself useful to science, as the rich number of species otherwise lost to the sands of time has made constructing phylogenetic trees of life easier. Also, the region has helped geologists, meteorologists, and climatologists find out more about the forces that affect Skull Island and the surrounding regions. It turns out that, up until the Miocene, the region the island occupies was once a heavily volcanic area (hence the island's rich history of continental drift and connecting land bridges), but any of the island's volcanoes eventually became extinct by the beginning of the Pliocene. Hopefully, this beautiful semi-desert, as well as the island's other well-known regions, can provide further insight into the natural history of our planet in the near future.


	38. The Shadestalker

Shadestalker ( _Megagaleodes necroinsulus_ )

Solifuges (also known as camel spiders, sun spiders, wind scorpions, and various other names), though they share many similarities with spiders and scorpions, are neither, instead making up their own order Solifugae. Though not as well-known to laypersons as their aforementioned relatives, solifuges are, nonetheless, intriguing creatures. Unlike spiders and scorpions, they do not possess venom, instead relying on powerful crushing bites to kill their prey. These hardy arachnids are masters at desert survival, being found in most of the world's deserts, from North Africa, to the Middle East, to the deserts of the American Southwest. As they have inhabited this planet since the Late Carboniferous period, it makes sense that at least one solifuge inhabits the arid semi-desert of Skull Island; the strangely-large Shadestalker ( _Megagaleodes necroinsulus_ ).

Shadestalkers boast the title of the largest solifuge currently alive (roughly the size of the Goliath Bird-Eating Spider of tropical America), most likely due to the lack of competition. Their large size allows them to prey on animals too big for the usual solifuge, such as large arthropods, lizards, and small mammals. Unfortunately, their larger size has also made them more vulnerable to predation as they become bigger targets that could be easily seen by keen-eyed hunters.

Fortunately, this goliath among "sun spiders" has many tricks up its sleeve to avoid becoming the next meal of a hungry desert predator. These animals (like other solifuges) are notoriously aggressive, using their powerful chelicerae to discourage foes with a swift and painful bite. However, this behavior is only used as a last resort as these creatures are incredibly fast, preferring to run away from danger and seek shelter in the shadows of large herbivores. To tell if a Shadestalker is about to attack in self-defense, it will utter a bloodcurdling hissing sound as a warning.

 **Author's Note:** The Shadestalker is based on a large solifuge featured in _The World of Kong: a Natural History of Skull Island_ called the Moonspider. However, unlike the book's animal, the Shadestalker, like solifugids in real life, is not venomous.


	39. The Aardshrew

Aardshrew ( _Myrmecotherium fossorialis_ )

Though the stereotype of Mesozoic mammals being nothing more than small, nocturnal, shrew-like creatures cowering under the feet of massive dinosaurs is partially accurate, not all of the fit this mold entirely. What many don't realize is that, even though they were not the dominant land vertebrates at the time, Mesozoic mammals were actually very diverse with many following a myriad of behaviors and body plans. An even more obscure fact is that some mammals once believed to have gone extinct near the end of the "Age of Reptiles" actually survived for a shot while in very isolated areas, places where the placental Eutherians and marsupials cannot venture (at least for the time being). Among these mammals are the allotheres, primitive creatures which existed on continents from the late Jurassic to the early Miocene. Unsurprisingly, Skull Island became a haven for Indo-Malagasy allotheres, which have spread from the island's semi-desert to many other biomes. Though the relative density of allotheres on the island has dwindled over the past few epochs (competition with rodents, shrews, and marsupials were definitely not a help), the semi-desert continues to be a hotspot for allothere diversity. One of the largest allotheres on the island is a common sight in this dry, arid time capsule; the Aardshrew ( _Myrmecotherium fossorialis_ ).

The Aardshrew is what is known as a multituberculate, an order of allotheres which often sported very rodent-like anatomies. This animal, and many other members of this ancient order, helped solve the mystery of allothere reproduction, as females give birth to live young in a fashion similar to marsupials, but they lack true nipples, instead having a "milk patch" like those seen on monotremes. Genetic analysis of the Aardshrew (and other Skull Island allotheres) places them as theriiformes, but not true therian mammals.

The semi-desert of Skull Island has the largest amount of allotheres, thus this region also boasts a high amount of allothere diversity. Many of these primitive desert beasts probably evolved from a small insectivorous ancestor, one that would spawn a plethora of descendants, each one more curious than the last. The Aardshrew is one such creature as, hence its name, it has become a scourge of the local desert termites, using its powerful claws and long, sticky tongue to make short work of the insects and their mounds. Not only do these allotheres behave like their namesake, the Aardvark, but they're even roughly the same size (quite big compared to most allotheres). Aardshrews are antisocial, nocturnal creatures, coming out at night to feed and retreating to their burrows during the day.

 **Author's Note:** The Aardshrew is based on an insectivorous pelycosaur known as the Formicavoro (or Termito'saurus) featured in _The World of Kong: a Natural History of Skull Island_.


	40. The Pseudomoloch

Pseudomoloch ( _Pseudomoloch necroinsulus_ )

While most outsiders associate the subcontinent of Australia with its collection of charismatic marsupial mammals, equally impressive are its reptiles. One such striking creature is the Moloch or Thorny Devil ( _Moloch horridus_ ), a small, desert-dwelling agamid lizard known for the intimidating spikes protruding from its hide and its insatiable appetite for ants. Though this body plan is iconic, it is far from the only lizard that sports it. A perfect example of convergent evolution, Skull Island's semi-desert is home to a very similar reptile appropriately named the Pseudomoloch ( _Pseudomoloch necroinsulus_ ).

While the differences between the Thorny Devil and its Skull Island impostor can be hard to spot, a trained eye can see multiple differences. For starters, the Pseudomoloch is slightly larger than its Australian counterpart (with a length of 30 cm compared to the Thorny Devil's 20 cm). In terms of anatomy, the Pseudomoloch has a shorter tail, longer brow spines, and a wider body than that of a Thorny Devil. Finally, regarding how each species gets moisture, the Thorny Devil drinks dew off of its body while the Pseudomoloch gets most of its water from the ants it eats.

How this bizarre agamid got to the isolated, prickly semi-desert has been a mystery for years. However, genetic analysis of the Pseudomoloch places it as a close relative of the popular Australian bearded dragons. The current hypothesis states that, during the Miocene (when a volcanic land bridge loosely connected Australia and Skull Island), the common ancestor bearded dragons and the Pseudomoloch share split, with the lineage that gave rise to the Pseudomoloch once sporting adaptations for rock climbing. Eventually, these mountain-trekking agamids reached the semi-desert, giving rise to the ant-eating creature we know and love today.

 **Author's Note:** The Pseudomoloch is based on the Calcarisaurus, a Thorny Devil-like agamid from _The World of Kong: a Natural History of Skull Island_.


	41. The Giant Thornback

Giant Thornback ( _Camelosuchus vulgaris_ )

From the Late Jurassic to the Early Miocene, the supercontinent of Gondwanaland (made up of Africa, India, Australia, South America, and Antarctica) was home to the notosuchians, a group of primarily terrestrial crocodylomorphs that were, arguably, as diverse as the dinosaurs and large mammals they coexisted with. These ancient creatures came in a variety of shapes, sizes, and ecological niches, from massive hypercarnivores that rivaled their more famous dinosaurian or mammalian contemporaries, to even small herbivores which could be seen as "reptilian rabbits". During the Mesozoic, these land-dwelling crocodilians flourished across Gondwanaland, with the Indo-Madagascar subcontinent being the home of some of the strangest. Though the K/Pg Mass Extinction spelled doom for a majority of notosuchians, it wouldn't be until the Miocene epoch of the Tertiary period where the last continental notosuchians (which were utterly terrifying South American predators) would go extinct. However, during the infancy of Skull Island, some of the earliest megafauna that inhabited the landmass were various notosuchians of the aforementioned Indo-Madagascar stock. These crocodylomorphs were the ancestors of the notosuchians that stalk the earthy landscapes of the island's semi-desert, in which they, like those before them, occupy a plethora of different roles in the biome's ecosystem, with the largest of these fantastic reptiles being the subject of this entry; the Giant Thornback ( _Camelosuchus vulgaris_ ).

The Giant Thornback is the largest animal native to the semi-desert of Skull Island, with a size comparable to that of the Black Rhinoceros ( _Diceros bicornis_ ) of Sub-Saharan Africa. Despite this, this animal seems to have convergently evolved to be similar to a camel, using its large cutting teeth to wolf down otherwise well-protected spiny trees and succulents. This beast even has a series of fat storages on its flanks and the ability to go for weeks without water. The Apex herbivore of its environment, it has very few natural predators due to its large size and a covering of spiny scutes that cover its back (though juveniles, whose spines are not fully developed, are more readily taken by brave carnivores). But perhaps the strangest aspect of this animal is that it (and all of Skull Island's other notosuchians) is fully endothermic, able to generate its own body heat, which is useful for a large animal living in a dry, warm environment.

Ever since fossil herbivorous notosuchians from the Late Cretaceous were discovered on the island of Madagascar, it wasn't hard for scientists to find out where the Giant Thornback came from. But with that, a new challenge arose; finding out why some of these relatively small crocodylomorphs gave rise to descendants eight times larger than they were. The current theory is that the semi-desert's relative isolation from the rest of the island allowed some of these notosuchians to grow large even when other large herbivores inhabited the same landmass.

Despite their camel-like appearance and behavior, these reptiles are not as social as their mammalian counterparts. Being solitary creatures, they often behave unfriendly towards each other, out of fear that any resources in their possession would be compromised. The only time Giant Thornbacks tolerate each other's presence is during mating season, in which, after mating, the female lays a clutch of 10 eggs and watches over them until they reach sexual maturity. The mother provides her hatchlings with food from outings in the dusty semi-desert, while the aforementioned young hide in a secluded, shady spot (such as a bush) to avoid the baking sun and hungry mouths.

 **Author's Note:** The Giant Thornback is based on a diplodocid sauropod from _The World of Kong: a Natural History of Skull Island_ called Asperdorsus, which is covered in long spines.


	42. The Desert Shrieker

Desert Shrieker ( _Bubotarsius paradoxus_ )

Though Skull Island's primate richness is fairly poor (ironic due to the fact that the Kong and the Skull Island Human are two of the most famous members of its fauna), the island still has several unique examples, many of whom have underwent bizarre evolutionary directions. As a result of island hopping back when the region the island is located was extremely volcanic, primitive Eocene tarsiers managed to reach Skull Island and began evolving into truly odd forms. The cursorial baboon-like Hordeleaper was the first of these highly-derived tarsiers discovered by scientists, but when the semi-desert was thoroughly discovered, the modern world found something even stranger; the Desert Shrieker ( _Bubotarsius paradoxus_ ).

Named for its bloodcurdling cry that echoes throughout the moonlit semi-desert, the Desert Shrieker is the only primate known to possess the ability of powered flight. How this is achieved is that the suctions normally seen on the fingers of tarsiers began to widen as the fingers themselves got longer, resulting in a pair of bat-like wings (only with five fingers instead of four). Though unlike bats, shriekers are bipedal when they walk, their locomotion being similar to birds (their uncanny resemblance to owls will be discussed later). However, as fascinating as these oddities are, they are not the best flyers as their long tail and method of flight (rapid flapping) doesn't allow them to stay airborne for very long.

Though they may not be the best at flying, Desert Shriekers are still efficient predators. The size of a Barn Owl ( _Tyto alba_ ), these flying primates hunt by using their powerful sight and hearing to find prey. They perch at high elevations (usually a cliff, a tree, or a large succulent), scanning their surroundings for small animals (namely insects and reptiles). When their next victim is spotted, it dives down, catching it in its mouth of razor-sharp teeth, before flapping away to its roost, where it is then ready to dine.

Due to their strange appearance and ecology, Desert Shriekers are popular in zoos around the world (which is strange because most tarsiers are incredibly hard to keep in captivity). Unfortunately, these charismatic primates have become victims of the exotic pet trade, which is threatening their survival. Smugglers have made various trips to Skull Island, nabbing these animals out of their native habitats and selling them on the Asian black markets for a fortune. These animals, though easier to keep in a zoo-like environment, make terrible pets as they are very aggressive when threatened and their nocturnal nature makes them sensitive to bright, unnatural lights.

 **Author's Note:** The Desert Shrieker is loosely-based on the Howler, a large-eyed, flying, predatory rodent from _The World of Kong: a Natural History of Skull Island_.


	43. The Hyena Lizard

Hyena Lizard ( _Osteophagus gigas_ )

Today, when most laypersons would think of Skull Island's "apex predators", they usually think of quinkans, marsupials, or some of the more individualistic species (like Skullcrawlers). But when the island was still young, none of these animals existed on the island, instead, the top of the island's food chain was predominantly occupied by two groups of reptiles; the notosuchians of the insular Indo-Madagascar subcontinent, or the descendants of early shinisaurs which underwent insular gigantism. Today, outside of Skull Island, the only extant shinisaur is the Chinese Crocodile Lizard of East Asia, with Skull Island being the only other place on Earth to still house members of this family (despite their overall diversity not being as high as it was from the Cretaceous to the Eocene). Though their role of top predator has been displaced by Miocene Australian immigrants, the semi-desert in the island's center is still home to a powerful killer; the Hyena Lizard ( _Osteophagus gigas_ ).

The Hyena Lizard gets its name from its jaws, which, like hyenas, are able to crunch through bone with ease. These reptiles have powerful stomachs which allow them to digest, not only bone, but also the hair, scales, teeth, and nails of their prey. At 3 metres in length and weighing as much as 70 kilograms, it is the largest shinisaur to have ever existed. These animals are most active at night, using their superb night vision and strong sense of smell to locate their next meal.

Hyena Lizards are solitary creatures, only interacting with one another during mating season. At that point, the female lays a clutch of eggs and looks after them until they reach sexual maturity. She keeps them safe from potential predators, including male members of her own species who specifically target juveniles so that they can mate with the mother. Interestingly, in captivity, Hyena Lizards have displayed great feats of intelligence, rivaling those of varanid lizards.

 **Author's Note:** The Hyena Lizard is a take on the Nefundusaurus, a coastal-dwelling scavenging archosaur from _The World of Kong: a Natural History of Skull Island_.


	44. The Desert Rhinocerat

Desert Rhinocerat ( _Diablomys bicornis_ )

Regarding the group of allotheres known as the multituberculates, one subgroup of these primitive mammals that are a perfect example of convergent evolution are the gondwanatheres. True to their name, these multituberculates were once found in continents which made up the supercontinent of Gondwanaland, namely Madagascar, India, South America, and Antarctica. Gondwanatheres seemed to have a lifestyle and appearance akin to marmots and other similar rodents today, that of stocky herbivorous burrowers. Though the continents do not have gondwanatheres anymore (possibly due to competition with the aforementioned rodents), Skull Island has a few that originated from the Indo-Madagascar subcontinent. Island isolation has allowed these allotheres to grow to surprisingly immense sizes, with the largest extant Skull Island gondwanatheres making their homes in the semi-desert. Quite possibly the largest extant allothere, one of these desert-dwelling creatures is also one of the most unusual; the Desert Rhinocerat ( _Diablomys bicornis_ ).

The Desert Rhinocerat gets its name from the two horns that sit atop its snout (which it uses for defense and display). However, unlike its namesake, these horns are actually made of bone rather than hair (possible convergent evolution with the now extinct "Horned Gopher" of Pliocene North America). This large mammal reaches sizes comparable to most tapir species, which is uncanny because, like tapirs, it is a surprisingly good swimmer (though the semi-desert is dry, a handful of deep rivers run through the region), allowing it to escape into the water from hunters if necessary.

Like other gondwanatheres, the Desert Rhinocerat possesses powerful molars that are used for chewing tough vegetation. To give it an edge in this prickly ecosystem, this beast is also equipped with thick, padded lips which prevent injury when feasting on the abundance of spiny trees and succulents in the region. When on the search for food, it uses its powerful sense of smell to locate a meal.

Desert Rhinocerats live in small herds made up of a dominant male and his harem of females. Males are slightly larger than females and both sexes participate in guarding young from predators by forming a circle around them and displaying their bizarre horns. Like other multituberculates, these ancient mammals give birth to a partially developed offspring (like a marsupial), but rather than possessing true nipples, they have "milk patches" (like a monotreme).

 **Author's Note:** The Desert Rhinorat is loosely inspired by the Diablosaurus, a strange viviparous, rhinoceros-like sauropod descendant from _The World of Kong: a Natural History of Skull Island_.


	45. The Scalehound

Scalehound ( _Canisuchus agilis_ )

Though most associate reptiles with being ectothermic (relying on the sun to warm their bodies), most of Skull Island's crocodylomorphs are actually endothermic (in which an animal generates its own body temperature) sans a few mesothermic exceptions. The island's notosuchians, in particular, are all warm-blooded, making their lifestyles more fast and active than what is expected of most crocodiles. This higher metabolism has allowed these creatures to fill niches most cold-blooded reptiles cannot, making them seem much more mammal-like than crocodile-like. One particularly active notosuchian of Skull Island's semi-desert pushes speed and endothermy to the extreme; the Scalehound ( _Canisuchus agilis_ ).

The Scalehound could be seen as a reptilian equivalent of a coyote or a jackal, both in size and behavior. These dog-like crocodylomorphs have the ability to run surprisingly fast, providing a crucial window of escape for this gracile animal when cornered by a threat. Though they are not the apex predators of their dry world, they still play an important role in their ecosystem, feeding on small to medium-sized prey such as small multituberculates, birds, lizards, amphibians, snakes, arthropods, and some plant matter (succulents are occasionally taken).

Though (like jackals and coyotes) they are mostly solitary, Scalehounds have been reported banding together in small, disorganized groups for protection (similar behaviors have been observed in many fox species). These loosely-associated groups are sometimes used by Scalehounds to familiarize with one another before breeding season in order for these cunning crocodylomorphs to find who the best potential mate could be. After mating though, these reptiles return to their mostly solitary lifestyle, with females raising their young for up to three years, hiding them in small, shallow burrows for protection.

 **Author's Note:** The Scalehound is based on a less-than-plausible quadrupedal theropod from _The World of Kong: a Natural History of Skull Island_ called Arsartis.


	46. The Skull Island Butcherbird

Skull Island Butcherbird ( _Novocracticus necroinsulus_ )

Not to be confused with the shrikes of the Northern Hemisphere (who are sometimes referred to by the same name), butcherbirds are a group of Passeriformes in the family Artamidae. Native to Australasia, the oldest of these large perching birds first appeared in the early Miocene. These charismatic creatures get their name by their feeding behaviors, in which they skewer their prey (usually insects but other arthropods and even small lizards are occasionally taken when available) on thorns or tree branches (a behavior shared with the aforementioned shrikes). Fossil findings show that butcherbirds were once fairly common on Skull Island during the Pliocene, but most went extinct fairly recently due to the relative lack of sharp vegetation to skewer kills on. Today, only one species of butcherbird still remains in the island's semi-desert, the aptly-named Skull Island Butcherbird ( _Novocracticus necroinsulus_ ).

Unlike the previously mentioned fossil members of this endemic genus, the modern day Skull Island Butcherbird was able to thrive in the semi-desert because of the wide variety of prickly vegetation. Insular dwarfism has taken its toll on this bird as it is much smaller than other members of its family (roughly the size of an average-sized finch). This reduction in size is very beneficial to this animal as, because of the smaller spines on the plants in the region, it allows this insectivorous bird to more precisely skewer its prey onto the spines. However, its smaller size also prevents it from tackling larger prey, turning it into an obligate feeder of small arthropods.

The Skull Island Butcherbird is sexually dimorphic, with males sporting black-and-white piebald plumage and females possessing an overall beige coloration with light brown wings and tail feathers. Their macabre hunting behaviors also play a role in courtship, as, the more "hunting trophies" a male has in his territory, the more enticed a female becomes. After mating, females raise their young on their own, building a nest out of miscellaneous materials and rearing her chicks until they reach sexual maturity.

 **Author's Note:** The Skull Island Butcherbird (at least in its small size) is based on the Feather-Devil, a gliding lizard-like reptile from _The World of Kong: a Natural History of Skull Island_.


	47. The Discus Dragon

Discus Dragon ( _Platydraco minor_ )

A popular pet, the Bearded Dragons ( _Pogona_ ) are some of the most recognizable lizards of Australia. These charismatic reptiles are agamids, which are very widespread across the Old World, with a myriad of families native to Europe, Asia, Africa, and Australasia (such as the Bearded Dragons). Though these creatures may seem humble, they share relations with a host of strange relatives on the nearby Skull Island. Skull Island's semi-desert is home to several odd relatives of these "household pets", but the Discus Dragon ( _Platydraco minor_ ) is easily one of the most interesting.

At 17 cm long, the Discus Dragon is much smaller than its Australian relatives. This tiny size is one of three primary factors (the others being its flattened shape and membranes formed by modified ribs) that allow this lizard to do what it is known for; gliding. These airborne reptiles can often be seen carried along by the winds that sweep the semi-desert, transporting them from spiny tree to spiny tree (though they can glide on their own as well by simply jumping from high elevations).

The Discus Dragon is an opportunistic insectivore, feeding on whatever it can catch depending on its current mode of locomotion. When simply crawling around with its gliding ribs tucked into its sides, it chases after ants and termites, sometimes even following Aardshrews to termite nests and catching any excess insects dug out by the larger allothere. When gliding, it will pounce on small flies and beetles, utilizing wind currents to make slight turns if necessary. But one of the most interesting ways this small reptile feeds is by crawling onto large herbivores (such as a Giant Thornback) and eating the parasites that drink the blood of their giant hosts.

 **Author's Note:** The Discus Dragon is based on a coastal gliding agamid from _The World of Kong: a Natural History of Skull Island_ simply known as the Discus.


	48. The Reaperbeast

Reaperbeast ( _Psychopomposuchus ferox_ )

No matter where you go, the environment and the organisms that live there have greatly influenced the cultures and beliefs of human populations all over the world. Despite the local humans being a completely different species from _Homo sapiens_ , this trend continues with the culture of the humans of Skull Island( _Homo necroinsulus_ ). The fantastic and beautiful fauna and flora these endemic humans shared their island home with play major roles in many aspects of their culture and values. Though the Kong is arguably the most important animal in Skull Island mythology, the subject of this entry easily takes the No. 2 spot; the dreaded Reaperbeast ( _Psychopomposuchus ferox_ ).

The largest of the carnivorous notosuchians on the island, the Reaperbeast is the (mostly) undisputed apex predator that can be found in the semi-desert of Skull Island. Weighing as much as a Bengal Tiger, this crocodylomorph is a terrifying sight, with horn-like protrusions from its head, a lightly armored back, and jaws full of teeth used to slice flesh like butter. Though this animal does occasionally compete with Hyena Lizards, the Reaperbeast usually prefers to hunt prey with less protection (such as large multituberculates) so that its jaws aren't broken. Also, unlike the Hyena Lizard, this crocodilian is primarily diurnal, using its surprisingly acute eyesight to spot prey from a distance. Reaperbeasts live in monogamous pairs, where they can raise multiple generations of young.

The Reaperbeast gets its name for its role in the religion of the Skull Island humans, whereas it is both the "shepherd" and the "guardian" of the dead. The native humans believe that the semi-desert is where your soul goes when you die, the location of the afterlife. In the afterlife, you allegedly spend up to a minimum of 150 years there as a wandering spirit, guarded from the outside world by the Reaperbeasts. The large crocodylomorphs prevent the ghosts from leaving because, if a spirit escapes the dry valley, they run the risk of being influenced by malevolent forces, who brainwash them into doing their callous bidding using black magic. Unfortunately, these spirits, once they are dead, forget what happened to them in their past life and, eager to find out, are always trying to escape (despite the best intentions of the Reaperbeasts). However, once these 150+ years have passed, the spirits are then reincarnated as another living thing (be it an animal, a plant, or something else) and the cycle begins anew.

 **Author's Note:** The Reaperbeast is based on the Tartarusaurus, a massive coastal squamate-like reptilian predator from _The World of Kong: a Natural History of Skull Island_.


	49. The Goliath Solitaire

Goliath Solitaire ( _Megaraphus arenicolus_ )

The Indian Ocean islands of Mauritius and Rodriguez are probably best known to the outside world for being the former homes of two recently extinct birds; the Dodo ( _Raphus cucullatus_ ) of the former island and the Rodriguez Solitaire ( _Pezophaps solitaria_ ) of the latter island. Both birds were descendants of African pigeons which became stranded on the islands, their offspring becoming flightless, retaining a somewhat juvenile appearance, and becoming the apex herbivores of their respective insular homes in the absence of mammals. Living on islands without many natural predators, both derived pigeons were ill-equipped to deal with the settlement of these islands by humans, who (along with the animals they brought with them such as dogs, cats, rats, pigs, and macaques) hunted these mysterious beasts to extinction. These two animals were once believed to be the only members of the genus Raphinae, but, once the semi-desert of Skull Island was thoroughly explored, scientists made an unexpected discovery, a third (not to mention extant) species that is a member of this mysterious family; the Goliath Solitaire ( _Megaraphus arenicolus_ ).

Like its extinct brethren, the Goliath Solitaire is a highly derived flightless pigeon, its anatomy and behavior shaped by the same processes that affected its kin on Mauritius and Rodriguez. Though unlike its two extinct relatives, this species is much larger (hence its name), able to look an adult human straight in the eye. Another difference that separates this animal from the Dodo and the Rodriguez Solitaire is its diet as, based on accounts, the two extinct birds were primarily frugivorous (though the Dodo may have also eaten shellfish), whereas the Goliath Solitaire is (like many pigeons) more of a generalist omnivore, feeding on both plants (succulents, flowers, grasses, and ferns) and small animals (mostly invertebrates and small reptiles) that share its dry, windswept home.

Studies of the Goliath Solitaire have provided insight into what the behavior of the now extinct Dodo and Rodriguez Solitaire may have been like in life, particularly how it dispels myths about both birds. For starters, many older depictions of the Dodo featured short legs and ridiculously fat bodies, implying that these animals were slow and defenseless, two factors that led to their demise. However, after studying the anatomy of the Goliath Solitaire (which is a fast-footed, long-legged creature), we can infer that the extinct flightless pigeons are similar to the living one. Also, it was once believed that these two birds (the Dodo in particular) went extinct because of their apparent lack of intelligence. This has also been debunked by the Goliath Solitaire, which (like many other pigeons) have displayed great feats of intelligence, even using simple tools (like sticks) to force small reptiles out of their burrows.

 **Author's Note:** Like the Plains Mihirung (based on the Brutornis), the Goliath Solitaire is based on a carnivorous phorusraucid featured in _The World of Kong: a Natural History of Skull Island_ known as Zeropteryx.


	50. The Lesser Shieldbeast

Lesser Shieldbeast ( _Panzerdorsus minor_ )

Though the Giant Thornback is the most recognizable of Skull Island's herbivorous notosuchians, it is far from the only one. While none of these ancient crocodylomorphs are as big as the fabled "camel-crocodile", there are several smaller relatives who come in a variety of shapes and sizes. One such animal appears to represent an intermediate between the two extremes in size (from very large to very small); the Lesser Shieldbeast ( _Panzerdorsus minor_ ).

The Lesser Shieldbeast is one of two members of the genus _Panzerdorsus_ , the other being the Greater Shieldbeast ( _Panzerdorsus major_ ), a species that (based on examination of fossils) went extinct roughly 12,000 years ago. Though the cause of the extinction of the larger crocodylomorph is still unknown, the best theory explains that competition with similarly large herbivores in an ecosystem with limited recourses spelled doom for the reptile. While the Greater Shieldbeasts died off, the Lesser Shieldbeast (an animal with a size similar to a large dog) still lives on today, its smaller legs allowing it to feed on plants (succulents being a favorite of the species) at lower elevation. Both the extinct and extant members of _Panzerdorsus_ seem to have converged with the extinct Glyptodonts of South America, large herbivorous, heavily-armored relatives of armadillos.

The Lesser Shieldbeasts gets its name from the tough, plate-like scutes that line its back, with smaller chainmail-like scutes on its flanks and legs. This armor coating protects the animal from predators, of which it has very few. However, the underbelly of this crocodylomorph is soft and vulnerable, prompting the beast to lie down on its belly in defense until its attacker tires. Though their scutes are strong, Hyena Lizards are still able to bite through this scaly hide, forcing this otherwise placid animal to take offense, attacking with a flurry of bites, tail smacks, and kicks. Also, for protection (both for themselves and their young), Lesser Shieldbeasts form monogamous pairs for life, raising multiple sets of hatchlings at a time.

 **Author's Note:** The Lesser Shieldback was inspired by the Hebeosaurus, an armored herbivorous archosauromorph from _The World of Kong: a Natural History of Skull Island_.


	51. The Belchbeast

Belchbeast ( _Gastrotherium ursamimus_ )

When living in harsh environments with little options for a sustainable food source, a thick layer of fat is one of the best options an animal can opt for. Though usually associated with marine tetrapods (as it aids in buoyancy and keeping warm), blubber is also an efficient tool for land tetrapods that live in environments with temperature extremes. Deserts and desert-like conditions often bring forth animals which sport this excess adipose tissue due to the lack of food, which results in animals eating in large amounts at one point in time and using their fat to sustain themselves for what could be several months. Skull Island's dry semi-desert, unsurprisingly, is home to a creature that follows this evolutionary trend; the unflatteringly-named Belchbeast ( _Gastrotherium ursamimus_ ).

The Belchbeast is a large multituberculate that, true to its species name, shares many traits seen in bears, including an omnivorous diet, semi-dexterous front paws, massive amounts of hair, the ability to stand upright to intimidate foes, and a vast amount of fat to live off of in a biome where food can be scarce during the island's dry season. This primitive mammal can reach sizes also attained by adult sun bears, and like the Sun Bear, it even has a long, sticky tongue to help it feed on insects (and even some small tetrapods) found in the holes of spiny trees. Though this beast is a generalist feeder, it seems to take notable preference to succulents, which are full of precious water and nutrients to help it in trying times.

Belchbeasts get their name from one less-than graceful behavior of theirs; their extremely loud belch-like calls. These beasts have a wide range of sickening vocalizations, each one having a different purpose. Louder calls are meant to call out for mates (they live in monogamous pairs), while quieter (a very liberal use of the word) calls are used during more direct confrontations with predators, rivals, potential mates, or just friendly communication with other members of the species.

 **Author's Note:** The Belchbeast is loosely inspired by a crocodylomorph from _The World of Kong: a Natural History of Skull Island_ labeled the Bear-Croc, which also produces belch-like vocalizations.


	52. The Colossal Harvestman

Colossal Harvestman ( _Maiacaulos rex_ )

Although they are often mistaken for spiders, the order of arachnids called the harvestmen possess several key features that differentiate them from the former order. For example, unlike spiders (which have two-segmented bodies, an entirely carnivorous diet, and venom glands), harvestmen are characterized by their single segmented bodies, omnivorous diet, a lack of venom, and (most famously) eight almost comically long legs. Though these arachnids rarely get as large as a dime, one species on Skull Island dwarfs all other extant members of this order; the Colossal Harvestman ( _Maiacaulos rex_ ).

The Colossal Harvestman is a tarantula-sized resident of the island's semi-desert, where its opportunistic diet proves most beneficial, allowing it to feed on a myriad of organisms (though its preferred food sources seem to be succulent plants and carrion). This arthropod is well-known in the scientific community for its odd species name, which roughly translates to "king of good-mothered plant stalks". The reason for this name comes from two factors; the creature's appearance (its long legs are thick enough to resemble plant stalks) and the behavior of mother members of the species.

After mating, the solitary Colossal Harvestman separate, with the father simply leaving as the mother starts looking after her eggs. The mother (which is larger than the male) will look after her young (many of whom will not survive to adulthood due to hungry hunters) until they reach sexual maturity. Also, though the male is smaller than the female, he is also more ornately colored, sporting orange and green markings as opposed to the female's dull brown and grey coloration.

 **Author's Note:** The Colossal Harvestman is based on the Mother Long-Legs, a massive harvestman-like kaiju from the film _Kong Skull Island_ , though the creature featured in this entry is nowhere near as big.


	53. The Wedge-Headed Sand Skink

The Wedge-Headed Sand Skink ( _Leucosaurus fossorius_ )

Skinks are an incredibly diverse group of lizards that can be found almost everywhere on the planet. Though members of this iconic family of squamates come in all manner of shapes and sizes, skinks as a whole are often characterized by having relatively short necks and long tails which can sometimes be replaced by a cartilaginous substitute should it become detached by an attack from a hungry predator. Like many parts of the world, Skull Island is no stranger to skinks and one particular skink that stalks the central semi-desert is the Wedge-Headed Sand Skink ( _Leucosaurus fossorius_ ).

As its genus name implies, part of the Wedge-Headed Sand Skink's body is white (specifically the head, shoulders and upper back), which is handy when the animal needs to reflect the harsh sunlight. On the other hand, the lower half of this creature's body is black, which it will expose to the sun whenever it needs to warm up. While this animal cannot change color, the function of its multicolored body bears some similarities to many species of chameleons that can be found in the Namib Desert in Southeastern Africa.

Another important fact about this relatively small (roughly 25 cm) lizard is implied through its species name; the fact that it is an accomplished burrower. The Wedge-Headed Sand Skink uses its spade-shaped head and broad fingers that are attached to powerful forearms to dig a deep hole into the dirt. This ability to burrow is how this primarily insectivorous reptile is able to hunt a wide variety of arthropods including beetles (their most common quarry), ants, spiders, juvenile Shadestalkers, termites, and many others, Also, much like many other skinks, this animal builds and raises its young in nests which are located in their burrows. This lizard is one of the primary food sources of the previously mentioned Goliath Solitaire, which has been known to use tools (namely sticks) to force the reptiles out of their burrows and out into the open. Despite its small size, this skink is a very recognizable animal endemic to Skull Island because of its status as a common and fairly easy to keep pet.

 **Author's Note** : The Wedge-Headed Sand Skink is based on a lizard known as the White Wedgehead from _The World of Kong: a Natural History of Skull Island_ that feeds almost exclusively on dung beetles.


	54. The Lowland Rainforests

The Lowland Rainforests

What may be the most recognizable of Skull Island's collection of biomes, the rainforests that dominate the southern side of the island are home to some of the most iconic animals that call this odd landmass home. These dense jungles are made up of tropical plants that thrive at low elevations, similar to the lowlands forests found in countries like Thailand and Malaysia (though some of the flora is not exactly the same). Many of the trees in these forests are exceptionally tall (due to the fairly poor soil that has plagued the island ever since its volcanic regions went extinct), causing the forest floor to become a very dark place with plenty of hiding places for both predatory and less-than-predatory animals alike.

Regarding its fauna, most of the macropredatory niches are taken by a collection of strange terrestrial crocodilians known as quinkans, who originated from Australia and reached the island during the Miocene epoch. But land-dwelling crocodiles aren't the only oddities found in the jungle as these forests are home to a cast of even stranger creatures that include lemurs, meiolaniids, and various marsupials. One last note about the forests as a whole is that most of the settlements built by the native Skull Island humans are made from wood that comes from these rainforests, their villages often being built on the outskirts of this forest, where the jungle meets the coastline.


	55. The Pygmy Carnoroo

The Pygmy Carnoroo ( _Ornitherium pygmaeus_ )

As many previous entries explained before, one group of animals endemic to Skull Island that has gained notoriety is its collection of carnivorous macropods. Though the origin of these these curious marsupials has been mentioned in detail before, it still bears repeating. During the early Miocene, various omnivorous rat-like kangaroos from Australia made it to Skull Island (amongst various other Australian fauna and flora), eventually giving rise to several primarily predatory descendants, some of which growing to large sizes. While there are many large meat-eating macropods on the island, some didn't grow as large, one of which being the opportunistic Pygmy Carnoroo ( _Ornitherium pygmaeus_ ).

The Pygmy Carnoroo is the smallest member of the Skull Island-endemic family known as Ornitheridae and, subsequently, is also the smallest member of the genus _Ornitherium_. This family of (mostly) carnivorous kangaroos gets its name from the almost bird-like anatomy and locomotion these marsupials possess, chiefly in their legs and hips which have an almost avian appearance (sans the hollow bones). Depending on their size, each of these bizarre metatherians occupies a unique niche. The Pygmy Carnoroo is no different, its small size (an average of 12 to 16 kg) allowing it to live the life of a fox-like scavenger.

This creature is an omnivorous generalist (an ironic misnomer considering its English common name), creeping around from twilight to dawn and feeding on whatever it can find. Common sources of food include fallen fruit, berries, insects, snails, worms, small mammals, lizards, snakes, frogs, and (most interestingly) eggs. Eggs, in particular, make up a fairly sizable portion of its overall diet, as the island's glut of oviparous megafauna provide this small marsupial with an abundant ant nutritious source of food. In fact, this creature's taste for eggs is so prominent that it will even go after the unhatched offspring of some of the most dangerous quinkans that it shares its jungle home with.

 **Author's Note:** The Pygmy Carnoroo is loosely based on the Adlapsusaurus, a small, egg-eating theropod dinosaur featured in _The World of Kong: a Natural History of Skull Island_.


	56. The Giant Devil Tortoise

The Giant Devil Tortoise ( _Daemonochelys goliath_ )

Throughout Earth's history (since approximately the Late Permian period) this planet has been home to a plethora of unique testudines (turtles, tortoises, and related creatures). One particularly fascinating group of these animals are the meiolaniids, a now mostly extinct family that once thrived in Australia, New Caledonia, South America, and possibly even Antarctica during most of the Cenozoic. Unfortunately, the last of these odd reptiles in their aforementioned range were hunted to extinction by humans during the end of the Pleistocene. However, like many Cenozoic Gondwanan animals, meiolaniids were able to survive on Skull Island, producing many interesting species. Known as Devil Tortoises, the largest of these ancient animals lurks within the rainforests of the island; the aptly-named Giant Devil Tortoise ( _Daemonochelys goliath_ ).

Like all meiolaniids (living and extinct) the Giant Devil Tortoise possesses key anatomical traits that show this family of turtles as a textbook example of convergent evolution. This large 2.3 meter long animal has a pair of short horns on its head (hence it and other members of its family's common name), an armored neck (which prevents the animal from tucking its head into its shell), pointed ends jutting from the top of the carapace, and spikes along its tail. These traits demonstrate the phenomena of convergent evolution because animals with similar body plans to these turtles also once appeared (notable among them are the ankylosaur dinosaurs and various glyptodonts, a group of large armored xenarthrans which once roamed South America).

Despite its intimidating appearance and name, the Giant Devil Tortoise is a fairly placid animal, usually minding its own business feeding on grasses, ferns, fallen fruits, rotting wood, and other ground-dwelling vegetation. When encountering a potential threat, the first instinct of this gentle giant is to simply lie down on the ground, its heavily armored body protecting it, though if a predator does finds a way to exploit a possible weak spot (such as attempting to flip it over), the giant turtle will fight back, attacking with its beak and spiky tail. Giant Devil Tortoises are solitary animals only actively engaging in social behavior when it is time to mate, though unlike most testudines, females will actively protect their young as they reach maturity.

 **Author's Note:** The Giant Devil Tortoise is based somewhat on an endangered fern-eating stegosaur called Atercurisaurus from _The World of Kong: a Natural History of Skull Island_ , though it is not as specialized.


	57. The Megapede

The Megapede ( _Scolopendra necroinsulus_ )

Though snakes are present on Skull Island, they are one of the least biodiverse groups of organisms on the island. Though a modestly-sized handful of boas and nonvenomous colubrids call the main island home, the only venomous species that could be found there is the previously mentioned Bog Viper ( _Hydrovipera ferox_ ). The current hypothesis as to why snakes (particularly venomous ones) are almost entirely nonexistent on the island is due to possible competition with the local centipedes, particularly the subject of this entry; the Megapede ( _Scolopendra necroinsulus_ ).

A notoriously opportunistic killer, the gargantuan Megapede is the largest extant centipede. With a total length of 35 centimeters, this nightmarish animal is well-equipped for life on the rainforest floor as well as the treetops, its hook-like legs giving it a good grip on branches. This arthropod's large size allows it to prey on practically anything smaller than it, dispatching insects, spiders, small reptiles, small mammals, amphibians, birds (including eggs and chicks), carrion (although scavenging behavior is rare), and even smaller members of its own species with its formidable claws, mandibles, and venom. On the topic of its venom, is one of the most potent of any centipede and, if left untreated, can become fatal.

Because the Megapede occupies a similar niche to many venomous snakes, there are very few of them on Skull Island. The Bog Viper seems to be the only native venomous snake on the island because, unlike the Megapede, it occupies the niche of a small semiaquatic ambush hunter, whereas the large arthropod is content with stalking the trees and leaf litter of the island's jungles. The Megapede and its ancestors have been hypothesized to have lived on the island for as long as its genus ( _Scolopendra_ ) has existed.

Megapedes are solitary animals, often avoiding each other out of fear that potential conflicts would rise (conflicts often end with one of the two being eaten). However, an exception to this normally antisocial behavior comes around when two centipedes are mating or when a mother is raising her hatchlings. Like most centipedes, female Megapedes are extremely protective of their young, often curling their bodies around them to protect them from predators that might invade the cylindrical burrows that they dig in both soil and hollowed trees. Though many juvenile Megapedes do not reach sexual maturity (often falling victim to hungry hunters), mothers try as hard as they can to make sure every member of their offspring has a chance to survive.

 **Author's Note:** The Megapede was inspired by a family of large centipedes that go by the same name featured in _The World of Kong: a Natural History of Skull Island_.


End file.
